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1、Meaning changes in different ways.1)Extension 延伸延伸the meaning changes from specific针对 to generalized广义上 one or cover a broader concept包含广括的概念thing-审判大会、政治会议审判大会、政治会议any thingChapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的变化词义的变化2) Specialization/narrowing (缩小）缩小）Originally, they mean:最初的意思最初的意思Garage n. 车库；汽车修
2、理厂；飞机库 vt. 把送入车库-安全的地方poison-vt. 污染；使中毒，放毒于；败坏；阻碍 vi. 放毒，下毒 n. 毒药，毒物；酒；有毒害的事物；助剂 抑制剂 adj. 有毒的 饮料hospital-n. 医院 休息娱乐场所3) Elevation （升格）a.贬义贬义/中性义中性义- 褒义（或高级别）褒义（或高级别）Marshall-马夫马夫-元帅元帅Executive adj. 行政的；经营的；执行的，经营管理的行政的；经营的；执行的，经营管理的 n. 经理；执行经理；执行委员会；执行者；经理主管人员委员会；执行者；经理主管人员 一般执行者一般执行者-行政行政官员官员4) Deg
3、radation （降格）（降格）中性中性/褒义褒义 贬义贬义Cunning adj. 狡猾的；巧妙的；可爱的狡猾的；巧妙的；可爱的 n. 狡猾狡猾有学问有学问的的-狡猾的狡猾的Sly- adj. 狡狡猾猾的的；淘淘气气的的；诡诡密密的的 熟熟练练的的- 偷偷偷偷摸摸摸的；狡猾的摸的；狡猾的5. Transference(transfer) of Meaning转化的意思转化的意思A word used to designate指定指定 one thing, but later it began to mean something elsePaper papyrus(纸莎草纸莎草)-纸纸mai
4、nly:大体上大体上(1) Associated Transfer关联转化关联转化tooth, n. 牙齿 vt. 给装齿 vi. 啮合 lip, n. 嘴唇；边缘 vt. 以嘴唇碰 adj. 口头上的 vi. 用嘴唇 nose n. 鼻子；嗅觉；突出的部分；探问 vt. 嗅；用鼻子触 vi. 小心探索着前进；探问 can used to refer to things:the lip of a wound,唇上的伤口, the nose of a plane鼻子的一架飞机(2) Transfer between abstract抽象抽象 and Concrete具体具体 MeaningsRo
5、om- space- 房间(concrete具体)Grasp 抓-understand理解 (abstract抽象)(3) Transfer between Subjective主观主观 and Objective客观客观 thingsDreadful adj. 可怕的；糟透的，令人不快的可怕的；糟透的，令人不快的 somethng/sb full of dread something/sb that causes dreadPitiful adj. 可怜的，令人同情的可怜的，令人同情的 (4) synesthesia 共感觉共感觉 (感官词之间感官词之间)sweet music美妙的音乐,
6、warm colors暖色；警戒色 , clear sounding 清澈的嗓音6. Euphemism 委婉语Toilet n. 厕所，盥洗室；梳妆，打扮厕所，盥洗室；梳妆，打扮 vi. 梳妆，打扮梳妆，打扮 vt. 给给梳妆打扮梳妆打扮表示：Restroom, bathroom, John, convenience, washroom, comfort room, powder room化妆室；盥洗室 , ladys, gentlemans, Die vi. 死亡；凋零；熄灭死亡；凋零；熄灭 vt. 死，死于死，死于 n. 冲模，钢模；骰子冲模，钢模；骰子Causes of change:
7、变化的原因变化的原因1)extra-linguistic外外 来来 语语 factors such as historical历历史史的的 reason(pen), class reason(revolution革革 命命, communism共共 产产 主主 义义.human rights人人权权) and psychological reason心心理理 上上 的的 原原 因因(garbage collector清清 洁洁 工工sanitation engineer环境卫生工程师环境卫生工程师 环卫师；清洁工程师（委婉语）环卫师；清洁工程师（委婉语）)2) Linguistic facto
8、rs语言要素语言要素(1)Internal factors cause the change内部因素内部因素gold medal-金牌；金质奖章金牌；金质奖章 gold; n. 金，黄金；金色；金，黄金；金色；金币金币 adj. 金的，金制的；金色的金的，金制的；金色的light bulb，电灯泡电灯泡 bulb n. 电灯泡；鳞茎；球状物电灯泡；鳞茎；球状物 vi. 生球茎；膨胀成球状生球茎；膨胀成球状(2) Influence of alien words外来语的影响外来语的影响Deer鹿鹿refers to animal, but “animal”from Latin was later
9、 introduced into English, so the meaning of deer was narrowed狭隘的. (3) analogy n. 类比；类推；类似 Fruition- 享用,享受- 结果(fruit，水果；物 vi. 结果实 vt. 使结果实 ), 实现Chapter 8 Meaning and Context意义和上下文意义和上下文The meaning of a word is often decided by where it is used, either in a spoken or written discourse演说演说. - contextMe
10、aning lives in context types类型类型Types of Context: Linguistic context语语言言语语境境；语言的前后关系语言的前后关系 , extra(non)-linguistic contextLinguistic context may be divided into 2:lexical context词 汇 内 容 and grammatical语 法context.A piece of paper一一 张张 纸纸, a term paper学学 期期 报报 告告, todays paper今今天天的的报报纸纸, examination
11、paper考考试试卷卷, etc.What context do you think the above belong to?do ones teeth; do the flowers; do fish; do well(at school)Loot at the following sentences with “become”, which context are they related to to understand its meaning?He became very excited about the final exam.(link verb)最后的考试他感到很兴奋。The c
12、oat doesnt become you at all.( transitive verb)那衣服一点也不适合你。Sometimes the meaning of a word can be decided决定 only after a paragraph, a chapter章 or even a book is read. For example, “Janet! Donkeys!”珍妮特，真傻。珍妮特，真傻。Extra-linguistic ContextCulture文化, situation情况, cognition认知 3 basic elements 3个基本原理 John i
13、s quick(quick-minded; fast, hot-tempered adj. 暴躁的；性急的；易怒的 .)Look out! 注意，小心！注意，小心！Trade union工工会会: strong political meaning in the WestAggressive：adj. 侵略性的；好斗的；有进取心的；有闯劲的侵略性的；好斗的；有进取心的；有闯劲的 Lover：n. 爱人，恋人；爱好者爱人，恋人；爱好者 The role of Context1)get rid of ambiguity摆脱摆脱模棱两可的话模棱两可的话 The ball n. 球；舞会球；舞会 vi.
14、 成团块成团块 vt. 捏成球形捏成球形was very attractive吸引人吸引人. Tom ran the race.汤姆跑。汤姆跑。They saw her duck. n. 鸭子；鸭肉；（英）宝贝儿；零分鸭子；鸭肉；（英）宝贝儿；零分 vi. 闪避；没入水中闪避；没入水中 vt. 躲避；猛按躲避；猛按入水入水 Noun? Verb?2) help define referentsThis/that, now/then, etc.3) provide clues线索 for inferring word-meaning根据线索推断单词的意思根据线索推断单词的意思example: 如
15、如Kinesics, n. 人体动作学；举止神态学 the study of body movement, was suggested by Professor Bird-whistell（人名）.Chapter 9 English Idioms习语习语 Expressions that are not readily容容易易 understandable from the literal meanings字字 面面 意意 思思 of individual elements单单 个个 元元 素素. (set phrases短语短语 and sort sentences短句短句)In a bro
16、ad sense广广义义上上讲讲, they can include colloquialisms白白话话, slang俚俚语语 expressions表表达达式式, proverbs箴言箴言, etc.Characteristics:特征，特点特征，特点(1)Semantic Unity语义上的统一语义上的统一1)rain cats and dogs下下倾倾盆盆大大雨雨; Its a piece of cake轻轻松的事松的事.How do you do!你好你好 (2) Structural Stability 结构稳定性结构稳定性lip service空口的应酬话，口头上说得好听的话空口
17、的应酬话，口头上说得好听的话 out of the question不可能；不知底细；根本谈不上不可能；不知底细；根本谈不上 God bless you!上帝保佑你上帝保佑你Classification of idioms习语上的分类Many ways. In this book, grammatical文法的 function作用 is the criterion准则1. Idioms nominal名义上的名义上的 in nature-functions as a noun作作为名词使用为名词使用A white elephant无用的累赘东西；沉重的负担无用的累赘东西；沉重的负担 , Ja
18、ck of all trades杂而杂而不精的人；能做各种事情的人不精的人；能做各种事情的人 brain trust(智囊团智囊团)2. Idioms adjectival in nature作形容词使用作形容词使用as poor as a church mouse像教堂里的耗子那么穷，一贫如洗像教堂里的耗子那么穷，一贫如洗, cut and dried固定的；已成定局的；老生常谈固定的；已成定局的；老生常谈 (常规的、例行的常规的、例行的)beyond the pale在在范围之外范围之外 （ 发疯的）发疯的）3. idioms verbal in nature做动词做动词look into
19、观察；窥视；浏览 get away with侥幸成功，侥幸逃脱 make it（病痛等）好转；达到预定目标；及时抵达；走完路程 fall flat失败；达不到预想效果 let the dog see the rabbit让狗看到兔子4. Idioms adverbial in nature做副词做副词heart and soul全心全意地 in nothing flat（ in a very little time)立刻；在极短的时间内 through thick and thin不畏艰险；在任何情况下 tooth and nail (竭尽全力）如何区分一般短语和习语？如何区分一般短语和习语？
20、Can you tell us? 1.可否从字面意义确定意义可否从字面意义确定意义2.已有知识已有知识5) sentential idioms习语句子习语句子Nothing succeeds like success.一顺百顺，一事成功万一顺百顺，一事成功万事成，事成， 一事成功什么都顺利，一事成功什么都顺利， 一事如意一事如意Feed a cold and starve a fever.伤风时宜吃伤风时宜吃,发热时宜饿。发热时宜饿。Nothing venture, nothing have.不入虎穴不入虎穴,焉得虎子。焉得虎子。He laughs best who laughs last.谁
21、谁笑在最后笑在最后,谁笑得最好谁笑得最好A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.一鸟在手，胜过两鸟在林，一鸟在手，胜过两鸟在林， 双鸟在林不如一鸟在手。双鸟在林不如一鸟在手。Use of IdiomsUse of Idioms成语的应用成语的应用We have to know some characteristics of idioms to use them peoperly in real communication.1. stylistic features格式上的特点格式上的特点formal, informal(colloquial白话的
22、，通俗的)正式，非正式1) colloquialisms口语Hang in Tom! (Do not give up)口语(面对逆境)坚持不懈，坚持不屈不挠，坚持下去，拿出勇气，不泄气，不胆怯 She is a big wheel具有影响力的人 in the community社区.(influential person)2) slang俚语俚语Cancer stick癌棒（特指香烟） Hit the sack( go to bed)睡觉；就寝 3) literary expressions 书面语书面语Terrible things came to pass实现；发生实现；发生 last y
23、ear.去年发了可怕的事Famine followed in the wake紧紧跟随；随着紧紧跟随；随着而来；而来；作为作为的结果；仿效的结果；仿效 of war. 饥荒紧随战争之后。2. Rhetorical Features修辞特点1) Phonetic Manipulation语音上的处理A. alliteration头韵头韵might and main （全力以赴 ）part and parcel必要部分；重要的部分 （most important part)B. rhyme韵脚by hook and by crook（千方百计）fair and square光明正大地；诚实地 (h
24、onest)wear and tear 磨损 2） Lexical Manipulation语汇上的处理语汇上的处理A. reiteration 同义反复Scream and shout尽情尖叫吧 Pick and choose挑挑拣拣 B. Repetitionby and by不久以后 (soon), out and out 彻头彻尾的 neck and neck 并驾齐驱C. juxtaposition并置（反义词）Rain or shine不论晴雨，无论如何，风雨无阻 , here and there到处, penny wise and pound foolish小事聪明大事糊涂；小处
25、节约，大处浪费3) Semantic Manipulation语义上的处理A. simile 明喻Asas. 为做为As mute as a fish. 口语一声不吭2. 默不作声，一声不响; as graceful like a swan像天鹅一样优雅As busy as a _像.忙个不停 ; as strong as _像. 一样强壮 / likeB. metaphor暗喻暗喻He is a snake in the grass潜伏的危险 （暗藏之敌）C. metonymy转喻From cradle to grave一生（等于一生（等于from the cradle to the gra
26、ve) , he has never told a lie.他一生都没有说过谎D. synecdoche 提喻Two heads are better than one集思广益E. Personification拟人法拟人法Failure is the mother of success.失败是成功之母F. euphemism 委婉语the call of nature上厕所 Variations of Idioms习语的变化P.194(self-study)自学Chapter 10 English Dictionary字典字典Types:类型类型1) Monolingual and bili
27、ngual单单语语和和双语双语2) linguistic and encyclopedic语言和百科全书式的语言和百科全书式的Linguistic ones can be either monolingual or bilingual语言或是单语或是双语语言或是单语或是双语 (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English)现代朗文英语字典现代朗文英语字典大英百科全书（大英百科全书（20卷），卷）， 美国大百科全书（美国大百科全书（30卷）卷）Characteristics of American and British dictionaries:英英式和美式字典的特点式和美式字典的特点按规模还可分为：按规模还可分为：1）大型词典）大型词典(All the words theoretically) 韦氏第三版新国际词典（韦氏第三版新国际词典（45万词左右）万词左右）2）案头词典）案头词典(515万词）万词）3） 袖珍词典（袖珍词典（5万以下）万以下）4）专用词典）专用词典
