语言学知识点语言学知识点 nI 语言学导论 nII 语言学主要分支学科 nIII 语言学的流派和理论 I 语言学导论语言学导论 1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征） 2. Language Families (世界语言分类) 3. important distinctions in linguistics (语言学研究中几对重要的概念) 4. scope of linguistics (语言学的研究范围) n n1. 1. design feature of language（语言的定义特（语言的定义特征征) ) defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 1. design feature of language语言定义特征语言定义特征n n1)Arbitrariness（任意性）（任意性）n n2)Duality(二层性二层性)n n3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性创造性)n n4)Displacement（移位性）（移位性）n n5)Cultural Transmission(文化传递性文化传递性) n n1）Arbitrariness(任意性): n n定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. n n举例：n n书, book, livren n喜欢，like，aimer n n2）Duality（二层性）: n n定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.n n举例：举例： Sounds > syllables > words > phrases Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discourses> clauses > sentences> texts/discourses n n3） Creativity/Productivity（创造性）: n n定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality n n举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/---- carp or parkn n举例2：England, defeated, Francen nEngland defeated France.n nFrance defeated England. n n4）Displacement（替代性）: n n定义：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication. n n5） Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）: n n定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct. n n反例：印度狼孩 3. Design feature 定义特征定义特征n n1)Arbitrariness（任意性）（任意性）n n2)Duality(二层性二层性)n n3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性创造性)n n4)Displacement（移位性）（移位性）n n5)Cultural Transmission(文化传递性文化传递性) n n 如何记忆如何记忆: 五性，创意遗传五性，创意遗传 n n4. Important Distinctions in Linguistics n n (语言学研究中几对重要的概念)n n1) descriptive & prescriptive n n2) synchronic & diachronicn n3) langue & parolen n4) competence & performance n n1) Descriptive （描述性） vs. Prescriptive （规定性） n nDescriptive: describing how things are.n nprescriptive: prescribing how things ought to be Important Distinctions in Linguisticsn n举例：n nDon't say X.n nPeople don't say X.n nThe first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement. n n2). Synchronic（共时性） vs. Diachronic （历时性）n nsynchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. n ndiachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history. n n举例：n n研究1800年的英语发音 n nSynchronic studies (共时性研究)n n研究1800-1900的法语语法变化n nDiachronic studies (历时研究) 2. 世界语言分类世界语言分类 2. 世界语言分类世界语言分类 Important Distinctions in Linguistics n n3). langue（语言） & parole （言语）n nTheorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguistics n nlangue: abstract linguistic systemn nparole: actual realization of langue Important Distinctions in Linguisticsn举例：n汉语系统nlanguen每个中国人在不同具体场景中说出的具体话语nparole Important Distinctions in Linguisticsn n4) Competence（语言能力） and performance （语言运用）n ntheorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基) n ncompetence: user's knowledge n nof rules about the linguistic system.n nperformance: the actual n nrealization of this knowledge in concrete situations. n n5. Scope of Linguistics (语言学的研究范围)n n1）按研究内容来分n n2）按研究导向来分 语言学分类语言学分类-按研究内容分按研究内容分 语言学分类语言学分类-按研究内容分按研究内容分 语言学分类语言学分类-按研究导向分按研究导向分 语言学分类语言学分类-按研究内容分按研究内容分 语言学分类语言学分类-按研究内容分按研究内容分 n n考点: n n1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别n n2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音n n3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征 n nPhonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received. n nPhonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. n n区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音） n n举例:n ntoo 和 tea 中的 /t/n n发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部n n发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部n n语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究 n nPhonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. 语音学分类语音学分类n narticulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speaker’s production n nacoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: transmission’s mediumn nauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receiver’s reception n n如何记忆phonetics和phonolgy的区别:n n联想: mathematics, physics, mechanics n n phonetics 语言学，-ics科学性更强 n n n n geology, sociology, astrologyn n phonology 音系学，-ology人文性更强 How speech sounds are made Speech organs Position of the vocal folds(声带声带): voicing(浊音浊音) and voiceless (清音清音) n nVoiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction n n清音举例：[p,s,t]n nVoicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air stream vibrates n n浊音: [b,z,d] n nThe distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.n nAs there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines. n n音系学定义：study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. n n音系学重要概念: n nphone音子，n nphoneme音位 (音系研究的基本单位)n nsupra-segmental features超音段特征 n nPhone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all phones n n举例: n ntoo 和 tea 中的 /t/n n发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部n n发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部n n所以too 和 tea 中的 /t/两个不同的音子 Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value; the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. 举例： tea 和 sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morpheme n nWhat is the point of departure of phonology?n nA. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme n nWhat is the point of departure of phonology?n nA. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme(音位) n nWhat is the point of departure of phonetics?n nA. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme n nWhat is the point of departure of phonetics?n nA. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme Suprasegmental features (超超音段特征音段特征)n nSuprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments . n nThe principal suprasegmentals are: n nSupra-segmental features (超音段特征)： n nstress （重音）n n举例: perfect (adj) 和 perfect (v)n ntone (声调)/pitch (音高): n n定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.n n举例: mā妈, má麻, mă马， mà骂n n比较：英语单词，如me n nintonation （语调）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. 举例: Morphology 形态学形态学n n1. 学科定义n n2. 语素的定义和分类n n3. 词的分类（classification of words） 形态学研究的基本单位形态学研究的基本单位n n1. morpheme(语素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.n n举例：n nball n nfootball n nballs Types of Morphemesn nFree morphemes vs. Bound morphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）（自由语素和黏着语素）: n nFree morphemes:Free morphemes: those that may those that may constitute words by themselves, eg constitute words by themselves, eg boy, boy, girl, table, nationgirl, table, nation. .n nBound morphemes:Bound morphemes: those that cannot those that cannot occur alone, eg occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un--s, -ed, dis-, un-. . Types of Bound Morphemen nInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning (number, aspect, case, tense) n nDerivational morpheme（派生语素）=inflectional affix (派生词缀）: change the lexical meaning ndis+like+s derivational free inflectional morpheme nlight+en+ed free derivational inflectional morpheme n nDerivational morpheme(改变词义): n n改变词义：dis-, un-, multi-, micro-n n改变词性：en-, -full, -mentn nInflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:n n改变名称的性，数，格：-ess, -s,n n改变动词的时, 态，体: -ing, -ed, n n改变形容词的级：-er, -est 词的分类词的分类-按构词法分按构词法分 n n如何区分派生词（derivational word）和 合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。
n nBusinessman: business + mann nPlayboy: play + boy n nMouthful: mouth + fuln nLighten: light + en 词的分类词的分类-按词义分按词义分 词的分类词的分类-按开放性分按开放性分 词的分类词的分类-按在句子重要性分按在句子重要性分 分类方法分类方法分类方法分类方法 按构词法分按构词法分简单词简单词: dislike, light: dislike, light派生词派生词: : dislike, lightendislike, lighten合成词合成词: : cat-like, light-weightcat-like, light-weight按词义分按词义分语法词语法词 : : 冠冠, , 介，代，介，代，连词连词词汇词词汇词: : 名，动，形，副名，动，形，副按开放性分按开放性分开放词开放词: :名，动，形，副名，动，形，副封闭词封闭词: :冠冠, , 介，代，连词介，代，连词按在句中重要性分按在句中重要性分主要词类主要词类: :名，动，形，副名，动，形，副, , 介介次要词类：冠，代，连词次要词类：冠，代，连词 Syntax 句法句法n n考点n n1. 定义n n2. 句法范畴n n3. 句子类型 n n1. Syntax定义：: studies internal structure of sentence and rules of sentence-formation n nCategory(范畴): a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as sentence, a noun phrase or a verb (起相同作用的一类语言单位)n nSyntactical category(句法范畴): a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in sentence-formation. （在句子构成中起相同作用的一类语言单位） Syntactical category(句法范畴句法范畴)n nWord-----------lexical categoryn nPhrase---------phrasal categoryn nClause---------clausal categoryn nSentence Lexical Category 词法范畴词法范畴=Parts of Speech 词类词类 分类方法分类方法分类方法分类方法 按构词法分按构词法分简单词简单词: dislike, light: dislike, light派生词派生词: : dislike, lightendislike, lighten合成词合成词: : cat-like, light-weightcat-like, light-weight按词义分按词义分语法词语法词 : : 冠冠, , 介，代，介，代，连词连词词汇词词汇词: : 名，动，形，副名，动，形，副按开放性分按开放性分开放词开放词: :名，动，形，副名，动，形，副封闭词封闭词: :冠冠, , 介，代，连词介，代，连词按在句中重要性分按在句中重要性分主要词类主要词类/ /范畴范畴: :名，动，形，副名，动，形，副, , 介介次要词类次要词类/ /范畴：冠，代，连词范畴：冠，代，连词 n n phrasen n specifier head complementn n a car five meters awayn n 72Sentence Types(句子类型句子类型)simple Sentence complexnon-simple compound n n4. 句子分类：n nSimple sentence 简单句n nCoordinate sentence 并列句n nComplex sentence 复杂句 n nsimple sentence 简单句n n定义：also called independent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. n n练习：Jim and Mike play football every afternoon. n n(simple sentence) Mary goes to the library and studies every day. (coordinate sentence) n ncoordinate sentence并列句: contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator(并列连词) such as and, or, but etc. Coordinators are often preceded by a comma. n n例句:n n I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English. Lily went to play football, but Maria went shopping. n nYou have to do it one way or the other.n nSimple sentencen nThe workers were cheerful, or at least they appeared to be cheerful.n nCoordinate sentence n ncomplex sentence n n定义：A complex sentence has an independent clause joined with one or more dependent clauses by one or more subordinators(从属连词) such as if, when, because, althoug. n nAs he is growing old, he seldom goes out.n nHe is growing old, whereas he becomes healthier.n n如何区分并列和复杂句---看连词表示的关系 n n并列，选择和转折关系---并列句n n时间，条件，原因和让步关系---复杂句 Semanticsn n考点：n n1. 定义：study of meaningn n2. 两种基本意义：reference指称和sense涵义n n3. 五种词语语义关系 n nLudwig Wittgenstein: ‘The meaning of a word is its use in the language’. n nMeaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts.n nReferenceReference（指称）（指称）（指称）（指称）: : how language how language refersrefers to the real physical world (to the real physical world (语言指代外部物语言指代外部物语言指代外部物语言指代外部物质世界质世界质世界质世界) )n nSenseSense（涵义）（涵义）（涵义）（涵义）: : inherent meaning of the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is abstract and the linguistic form. It is abstract and the meaning dictionary compilers are meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. (interested in. (语言形式的内在意义语言形式的内在意义语言形式的内在意义语言形式的内在意义) ) conceptsymbolizes refers tosymbol referent(word) stands for (object) Synonymy 同义同义n nSynonymy 同义: sameness or similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义分类举例同义分类举例n ndialectical synonym地域同义词：n n举例: fall and autumn, flat and apartment n nstylistic synonym风格同义词：n n举例: cop and police, kid and offspringn ncollocational synonym搭配同义词：n n举例: accuse of, charge with, rebuke forn nSemantically different synonym语义稍有不同的同义词: n n举例: surprise and astound, blame and rebuke Antonymy 反义反义n nAntonymy 反义: oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms. n nAntonymy 反义关系分类：n ngradable antonymy 等级反义n ncomplementary antonymy互补反义n nconverse antonymy反向反义 Gradable antonymy等级反义等级反义n nyoung --------middle-aged--------------- oldn nbig --------middle-sized--------------- smalln ngood-------------average-----------------bad Complementary antonymy互互补反义补反义n nalive : deadn nmale : femalen npresent : absentn ninnocent : guiltyn nodd : evenn npass : failn nboy : girln nhit : miss Converse antonymy反向反义反向反义 n nbuy : selln nlend : borrown ngive : receiven nparent : childn nhusband : wifen nteacher : studentn nabove : belown nbefore : aftern nhost : guestn nemployer : employee Hyponymy 上下义关系上下义关系n nHyponymy上下义上下义: refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.n nSuperordinate/hypernym上义词上义词: the more general termn nHyponym下义词下义词: the more specific term n n举例举例:n nhypernym上义词上义词: animaln n Hyponym下义词下义词: bird, fish, tiger, catn n如何记忆如何记忆:n nhyper---向上向上 hype 炒作炒作n n hypo---向下向下 hypothesis 假设假设 Animalbird fish insect animal human animal tiger lion elephant ... Polysemy 一词多义一词多义n nPolysemy: the same one word has more than one meaning. Such a word is called polysemic word.n n举例:n nFish:n n1. 鱼n n2. 鱼肉n n3. 水生动物n n4. 捕鱼n n5. 寻找 n nHomonymy同音/同形异义词 : words having different meanings have the same form, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.n nIdentical in sound: homophones 同音词n nIdentical in spelling: homograph 同形词n nIdentical in both: complete homonyms 同音同形词 n nhomophones 同音词：n n举例: knight and night, piece and peace n nhomograph 同形词n n举例: tear (v) and tear (n), lead (v) and lead (n)n ncomplete homonyms 同音同形词: fast (adj) and fast (n) n n如何区分同音同形和一词多义现象: beauty, fish, ball, scalen nbeauty: 美丽；美女n nfish: 鱼；鱼肉；水生动物；捕鱼；寻找n nball: 球；舞会n nscale: 规模；鱼鳞 看其多个意义之间是否有关联，如果有就是一词多义，没有就是同音同形词 Pragmatics 语用学语用学 n n考点:n n定义和与语义学的区别：study of meaning in context or in usen n言语行为理论（两位理论家和三种行为）n n会话原则 2. Speech Act Theoryn nJohn Austin (1911-1960)n nHow to Do Things with Words (1962)n nMain Idea: things can be done with words n nConstatives(叙事句叙事句) vs. performatives（施为句）（施为句）n nConstatives（叙事句）（叙事句）: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is, eg: n nI go to the park every Sunday.I go to the park every Sunday.n nI teach English.I teach English. n nPerformatives（施为句）（施为句）: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.n nPerformative verbs: name, bet, etc. Three Speech Acts (三种言语行为三种言语行为)n nA locutionary act (言内行为言内行为): the act of uttering words, phrase, sentences. It is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.n n An illocutionary act（言外行为）（言外行为）: an act of expression speaker’s intention; it is an act performed in saying something.n nA perlocutionary act（言后行为）（言后行为）: the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer. 三种话语行为三种话语行为-举例举例n n老师对学生说: You have left the door open.n nLocutionary act(言内行为): the act of uttering the words of “you”, “have”, “left”, “the”, “door”, “open”n nIllocutinary act(言外行为): the act of expressing the teacher’s intention of asking the student to close the door.n nPerlocutionary act(言后行为): the effect of the utterance: student goes to close the door 103 Illocutionary Act Theoryn n美国哲学家美国哲学家John Searle (约翰约翰-塞尔，塞尔， 1932-)n n在Austin理论基础上把言外行为进一步分为5类：n n陈述（assertives），指示(directives)，承诺(commissives)，表达(expressives)，宣告（declaratives） Conversational Implicature（会（会话含义理论）话含义理论）n nTheorist：英国语言学家：英国语言学家Herbert Paul Grice (格莱斯，格莱斯，1913-1988)n nMain Idea: People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. The Cooperative Principle (CP，合作原则，合作原则)n nMaxim of Quality（数量准则）（数量准则）n nMaxim of Quantity（质量准则）（质量准则）n nMaxim of Relation（关系准则）（关系准则）n nMaxim of Manner（方式准则）（方式准则） The Cooperative Principle (CP，合作原则，合作原则)n nMaxim of Quality（数量准则）（数量准则）n nDo not say what you believe to be false.Do not say what you believe to be false.n nDo not say something if you lack adequate Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence;evidence;n nMaxim of Quantity（质量准则）（质量准则）n nMaxim of Relation（关系准则）（关系准则）n nMaxim of Manner（方式准则）（方式准则） n nMaxim of Quality（数量准则）（数量准则）n nMaxim of Quantity（质量准则）（质量准则）：：n nMake your contribution as informative as Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the required (for the current purposes of the exchange)exchange). .n nDo not make your contribution more Do not make your contribution more informative than required. informative than required. n nMaxim of Relation（关系准则）（关系准则）n nMaxim of Manner（方式准则）（方式准则） n nMaxim of Quality（数量准则）（数量准则）n nMaxim of Quantity（质量准则）（质量准则）n nMaxim of Relation（关系准则）：（关系准则）：n nBe relative.n nMaxim of Manner（方式准则）（方式准则） n nMaxim of Quality（数量准则）（数量准则）n nMaxim of Quantity（质量准则）（质量准则）n nMaxim of Relation（关系准则）（关系准则）n nMaxim of Manner(方式准则方式准则)：：n n Be perspicuous.n nAvoid obscurity of expression.n nAvoid ambiguity.n nBe brief.n nBe orderly. Macro-Linguistics宏观语言学宏观语言学 n nSociolinguistics 社会语言学n n1.定义n n2.语言变体 language varietyn n3.双语 n nSociolinguistics 社会语言学n n1定义：The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.n nSpeech语言变体n n双语 n nSociolinguistics 社会语言学n n定义n nSpeech variety/language variety 语言变体: refer to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.n n双语 n nPidgin(洋泾浜语/皮钦语)：a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speaks different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. n n上海洋泾浜 n n上海话中的洋泾浜英语上海话中的洋泾浜英语n n“ “蹩脚蹩脚蹩脚蹩脚” ”（（（（BILGEBILGE，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、下三滥的、劣质的）下三滥的、劣质的）下三滥的、劣质的）下三滥的、劣质的）n n“ “瘪三瘪三瘪三瘪三” ”（（（（BEG SIRBEG SIR，乞丐先生，用来形容叫，乞丐先生，用来形容叫，乞丐先生，用来形容叫，乞丐先生，用来形容叫花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一。
广泛的骂人用语之一广泛的骂人用语之一广泛的骂人用语之一n n“ “赤佬赤佬赤佬赤佬” ”是英语是英语是英语是英语“ “CHEATCHEAT” ”（欺骗）和中文（欺骗）和中文（欺骗）和中文（欺骗）和中文“ “佬佬佬佬” ”的混生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜的混生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜的混生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜的混生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜俚语（隐语）俚语（隐语）俚语（隐语）俚语（隐语） 119n nFrom pidgin to creoles(克里奥语克里奥语):n nPidgin has become the primary language as a result of intermarriage, it is spoken at home and learned by children as a mother tongue.n n举例举例举例举例. French-based Haitian Creole, . French-based Haitian Creole, English based jamaica CreoleEnglish based jamaica Creole n nSociolinguistics 社会语言学n n定义n n语言变体n n双语 n nBilingualism(双语现象)n nDiglossia (高低双语现象)n nMultilingualism（多语现象） n nBilingualism(双语现象): a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.n n举例：n nCanada(French and English), Wales (Welsh and English)n nDiglossia (高低双语现象)n nMultilingualism（多语现象） n nBilingualism(双语现象)n nDiglossia (高低双语现象): a linguistic situation in which two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.n n举例：n nSwitzerland: n nHigh German as the standard (public, official)High German as the standard (public, official)n nSwiss German as the vernacular (informal, Swiss German as the vernacular (informal, daily)daily)n nMultilingualism（多语现象） n nBilingualism(双语现象)n nDiglossia (高低双语现象)n nMultilingualism（多语现象）: a linguistic situation in which more than two languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.n n举例：n nSingapore (English, Chinese, Malay) n nBilingualism(双语现象): a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers n nDiglossia (高低双语现象): a linguistic situation in which two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to playn nMultilingualism（多语现象）: a linguistic situation more than two varieties are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers n n人类语言学 Anthropological Linguisticsn n定义: study of the relationship between culture and languagen n假说：Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说)：structure of the language people use influences the way they think and behave (简言之, 语言影响人的思想行为) 127n nSapir-Whorf Hypothesisn nEdward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)n nOur language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world. n nLinguistic determinismLinguistic determinism: L may : L may determine our thinking patterns.determine our thinking patterns.n nLinguistic relativityLinguistic relativity: different : different languages offer people different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world ways of expressing the world around.around. 128n nEnglish: horseshoen nFrench: French: fer a chevalfer a cheval ———— iron for horse iron for horsen nGerman: German: hufeisen hufeisen ———— hoof ironhoof ironn nThe Eskimos have countless words for snow. The Arabs, for camels. n n心理语言学Psycholinguistics: the study of the mental process of language comprehension and production.n n计算机语言学Computational Linguistics: study of the use of computers to process and produce human language. 语言学理论流派语言学理论流派 n n考点：四大学派的代表人物及其理论名称 n n1. Father of Modern Linguistics 1. Father of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学之父现代语言学之父n n2. Prague School 2. Prague School 布拉格学派布拉格学派n n3. London School 3. London School 伦敦学派伦敦学派n n4. American Structuralism 4. American Structuralism 美国结构主义美国结构主义n n5. Transformative-Generative Grammar 5. Transformative-Generative Grammar 转换生转换生成语法成语法 n n1. Father of Modern Linguistics 1. Father of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学之父现代语言学之父n n Saussure 索绪尔 (瑞士) 代表作n n n nSaussure’s new concepts:n nLangue and Parole (语言和言语)n nSignifier and signified （能指和所指） n n2. Prague School 布拉格学派： Stressed synchronic linguistics （强调共时语言学）n nN. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938)特鲁别茨柯依n nJ. Firbas (1921-2000) 费尔巴斯 136Prague School Phonologyn nN. Trubetzkoy’(特鲁别茨柯依特鲁别茨柯依) contributions:n ndefined the sphere of phonological studies, and gave an accurate definition of the phoneme. 137n nJ. Firbas (费尔巴斯费尔巴斯)n nFSP （（functional Sentence Perspective, 句子功能前景）：句子功能前景）： distribution of information in sentencen nCD （（Communicative dynamism, n n交际动力）） is used to measure the information amount a particular sentence constituent contains 1383. The London Schooln nMalinowski (1884-1942) 马林诺马林诺夫斯基夫斯基n nFirth (1890-1960) 弗斯弗斯n nHalliday (1925- ) 韩礼德韩礼德n nAll three stressed the importance All three stressed the importance of of context of situationcontext of situation and and the the system aspect of language system aspect of language n n马林诺夫斯基 费孝通 王铭铭 1403. The London Schooln nMalinowski (1884-1942) 马林诺马林诺夫斯基夫斯基n nFirth (1890-1960) 弗斯弗斯n nHalliday (1925- ) 韩礼德韩礼德n nAll three stressed the importance All three stressed the importance of of context of situationcontext of situation and and the the system aspect of language system aspect of language 141n nHalliday (韩礼德，韩礼德，1925- ).n nSystematic-Functional Grammar (系统功能语法系统功能语法) : n nsystemic grammar:systemic grammar: internal internal relations in L as a system relations in L as a system network, meaning work, meaning potential.n nfunctional grammar:functional grammar: L as a L as a means of social interaction, means of social interaction, uses or functions of uses or functions of language form.language form. 142n n3. American Structuralismn nMajor Linguists：n nBoas （博厄斯）（博厄斯）n nSapir （萨丕尔）（萨丕尔）n nBloomfield （布龙菲尔德）（布龙菲尔德） n nSapir-Whorf hypothesis:n nthe language influences the way one thinks and behave (语言影响人的思想行为) 5. Transformative-Generative Grammar 转换生成语法转换生成语法n nNOAM CHOMSKY 乔姆斯基乔姆斯基 (1928- ) Transformative-Generative Grammar 转转换生成语法换生成语法 Competence and performance Competence and performance 语言能力和语语言能力和语语言能力和语语言能力和语言运用言运用言运用言运用 145Phrase structure rulesn nS NP VPn nVP V NPn nNP Det Nn nV act, beat, catch, dive, …n nN man, boy, book, flower, ... 146 。