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1、ChapterSixWordMeaningandMeaningRelations“Linguisticsisessentiallythequestofmeaning.Itmayseemtotheoutsidertobeinordinatelyabsorbedinrecordinghair-splittingdistinctionsofsound,performingphoneticgymnastics,andwritingcomplexgrammarswhichgrammariansread.Butthesimplefactisthatitsrealconcernistolightupthet
2、hickdarknessofthelanguage,andtherebyofmuchofthethought,theculture,andtheoutlookuponlifeofagivencommunity,withthelightofthisgoldensomething,asIhavehearditcalled,thistransmutingprincipleofmeaning.”(Whorf1956:73)Contents (1)6.1. Conventionality VS Motivation 6.2. The Meanings of Meaning6.3. Four Kinds
3、of Meaning 6.3.1. Denotation and Reference 6.3.2. Denotation and Sense 6.3.3. Denotation and ConnotationContents (2)6.4. Meaning Relations 6.4.1 Synonymy 6.4.1.1 Strict VS Loose Synonymy 6.4.1.2 Distinguishing Synonyms 6.4.1.3 Explanation for so many Synonyms 6.4.2 Antonymy 6.4.3 Hierarchical meanin
4、g relations 6.4.3.1 Hyponym 6.4.3.2 Menonymy6.5. Semantics Field and Componential Analysis6.6. Word Meaning and Context 6.6.1 Extra-linguistic context 6.6.2 Linguistic Context 6.6.3 The role of context6.1 Conventionality Versus Motivation A pair of terms refer to relationship between the meaning of
5、a word and its form.What does Q-U-A-C-K mean? What does D-O-G mean? Conventionality Motivation Conventionality1.arbitrariness2.Conventionalists:1)nointrinsicreason2)linguisticsocialcontract3.homophoneswrite,right,riteMotivation1. the connection2. Naturalists: intrinsic correspondence3. onomatopoeic
6、meow, bow-wow, moo, coo, hiss, humRelationship between a sound and its meaning CanyoutellWhatsinaname?Thatwhichwecallarose,Byanyotherwouldsmellassweet.(W.Shakespeare,RomeoandJuliet,Act,Scene2)Tisnotenoughnoharshnessgivesoffence,Thissoundmustbeanechotothesense(A.Pope.EssayonCriticism)ConventionalityM
7、otivationReflection1.Whichkindofwordsarethemajority,conventionalormotivated?2.Echoicwords,completelymotivated?MutterinGermanorFrenchDifferentBarkingforDogsinEnglishandinChinese3.Inastrictsense,allwordsareconventionalandarbitrary6.2MeaningofMeaningWhatdoes“meaning”mean?Therearemanydistinguishablemean
8、ingsoftheword“meaning”Lyons(1977:1-5):meaningsofmeaningexhibitsuchanetworkofsimilaritiesanddifferencesthatitisimpossibletosaythatanyoneofthesemeaningsistotallyunrelatedtotheothers.Leechandhis7typesofmeaninginSemantics.Name Definition Further explanation Conceptual Meaning Logical,cognitiveordenotati
9、vecontentCentralmeaning;quitesimilartothenotionof“reference”Associative Meaning Connotative Whatiscommunicatedbymeansofwhatlanguagerefersto,thatis,someadditional,especiallyemotivemeaning.ThedifferenceofmeaningbetweenpoliticianandstatesmanAnelementaryassociationtheoryofmentalconnectionscanexplainthei
10、ruseSocial WhatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuseAffective Whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writerReflected Whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.Collocational Meaning Whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendtooc
11、curintheenvironmentofanotherwordMoreperipheral,relatedwiththemeaningofawordinatext,determinedbytheorderofwordsinasentence.Thematic MeaningWhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis6.3FourKindsofMeaning6.3.1. Denotation and Reference6.3.2. Denotation and Sense6.3.
12、3. Denotation and Connotation6.3.1 Denotation and Reference1. Lexeme: (1) An abstract linguistic unit with different variants coined by Lyons, e.g. SING (Lexeme) VS sang, sung (2)clarify the distinction between denotation and reference.Name DenotationReferenceDefinitionrelationbetweenalexemeandawhol
13、eclassofextra-linguisticsrelationshipsholdsbetweenanexpressionandwhattheexpressionstandsforonparticularoccasionsofitsutterances.PropertyAbstractConcrete,utterancedependentExample“computer”thespeciesof“computer”,notacertaincomputergenerallynotapplicabletosinglewordforms,neverapplicabletosinglelexeme.
14、JohnscomputerrefertothespecificcomputeroJohn.6.3.2 Denotation and SenseName DenotationSense Definitionrelationbetweenalexemeandawholeclassofextra-linguisticsaninternalmeaningrelationthatholdsbetweenwordswithinthevocabularyPropertyabstractsenseofanexpressionafunctionofthesenseofthelexemesitcontainsan
15、dtheiroccurrencesinaparticulargrammaticalconstructionSenseanddenotationdependoneachotherExample“computer”thespeciesof“computer”,notacertaincomputer1.dontputyourfeetonthetable.Itwasfinalizedunderthetable.2.Thereisnosuchanimalasaunicorn.Thereisnosuchbookasaunicorn.A word may have sense but no denotati
16、on. 6.3.3 Denotation and ConnotationName DenotationConnotation Definitionrelationbetweenalexemeandawholeclassofextra-linguisticscloselyassociatedwithsynonymyPropertyrelationshipbetweenalinguisticsignanditsextra-linguisticreferentadditionalpropertiesoflexemesDifficulttotellfromconnotationanddenotatio
17、nExample“computer”thespeciesof“computer”,notacertaincomputerScotsEnglishwordloch(lake)1.adialectallymarkedvariantofthestandardEnglishword2.adifferentlexeme(denotation)andaconnotationofScottishness”6.4 Meaning Relations6.4.1 Synonymy 6.4.1.1 Strict VS Loose Synonymy 6.4.1.2 Distinguishing Synonyms 6.
18、4.1.3ExplanationforsomanySynonyms6.4.2 Antonymy6.4.3 Hierarchical meaning relations6.4 Meaning RelationsParadigmatic VS SyntagmaticParadigmatic meaning relations: about the choice between words, which can substitute for each other in a particular slot in a sentence. E.g. I have a _ dog/cat/ car/ hou
19、se/ book Syntagmatic meaning relations: collocation, the mutual expectancy of words, or the ability of a word to predict the likelihood of another word occurring. E.g. Flex (弯曲）muscles/legs/ waistParadigmatic Meaning Relations1. synonymy: sameness2. antonymy: oppositeness 3. hyponymy (上下位关系): the ki
20、nd-of relation4. meronymy (整体-部分关系): the part-of relation 6.4.1 Synonymy1. Definition: a relationship of “sameness of meaning” that my hold between two words.2. Property: (1) widespread meaning relation in the vocabulary of English (2) there are always difference of meanings between the synonymy.6.4
21、.1.1 Strict VS Loose SynonymyStrict Synonymy: interchangeable in all their possible contexts of use. Loose Synonymy: a significant overlap in meaning between two words, but also some contexts at least where they cannot substitute for each other.Strict SynonymyStrict synonymy doesnt exist, because:Un
22、economical by creating unnecessary redundancy.In history, one of the words has either changed its meaning in some way or fallen out of use. E.g. Past Sky =Heaven Now Sky : denote physical Heaven: denote spiritual6.4.1.2 Distinguishing Synonyms1. Different dialects of English. BrEAmE BrEAmE LiftEleva
23、torBonnetHoodLawyerAttorneyCaravan(拖车)TrailerPavementSidewalkDrawingpinThumbtackRefuse/rubbishGarbageFarmRanch2.DifferentstylesorformalityofthecontextInformal Formal Informal Formal CrossTraverseArgumentDisputationDiedeceaseBeautyPulchritudeGiveupRenouncePraiseEulogyLetterMissive(信件)WarningCaveat3.S
24、amedenotation,differentconnotationAmbiguous Equivocal (deliberately)Obtain Procure(with effort)FamousNotorious(disreputably)persuadeInveigle(withingenuityordeceit)HateLoathe(withrepugnance厌恶)proudHaughty(withdisdain)misuseAbuse(ofprivilegeorpower)Recollection(回忆） Reminiscence(withpleasure)NewNovel(s
25、triking)Simulate(假装)Feign(withcraftiness狡猾)6.4.1.3ExplanationforsomanySynonymsBorrowedwords:English French Latin or Greek AskQuestionInterrogateGoodnessVirtueProbityRiseMountAscendTimeAgeEpochFearterrorTrepidation1.Englishwords:simplest,mostordinaryandtendtobelongtotheordinarycolloquiallanguage.2.Gr
26、eek/Latinwords:mostlearned,mostformalandmosttechnical,tendtobeusedinthemostformalcontext3.Frenchwords:inthemiddle.Themixingofthosewords:humor“Youwillfindthenettles(荨麻)verydifficulttoeradicate(消灭)?”IsaidIfoundthemhardtokeepdown.“Theydisseminate(传播)themselvesmostluxuriantly(旺盛),”hesaid.Irepliedthatthe
27、yspreadlikethedickens(乱来地,dickens:魔鬼).“ButtheyhavetheirutilityintheeconomyofNature,”hesaid.IrepliedthatNaturewaswelcometothemasfarasIwasconcerned.Hethenremarkedthatitwasmostsalubrious(有益健康的)weather,andIagreethatithadbeenafineday.Buthewasafraid,hesaid,thatthearidity(干旱)oftheseasonwasdeleterious(有害的)t
28、othecrops,andIrepliedthatmypotatoesweredoingbadly.Afterthat,Ithink,itoccurredtohimthatwedidnotspeakthesamelanguage.(A.G.Gardiner.OnBigwords)6.4.2AntonymyDefinition:1.oppositenessinthemeaning2.aspecialkindofsynonymy:shareallsemanticpropertiesbutone.TypesofAntonymy1.Morphologycriteria:A.morphologicall
29、yunrelatedrootantonymse.g.big-smallB.morphologicallyrelated,suchasprefixandsuffixesderivativeantonymse.g.Entangle(陷入)-Disentangle(摆脱)Rootantonymsaremostcommonlyused.2.Nuanceinthemeaning:A.GradableB.ComplementaryC.ConverseD.DirectionalGradableAntonyms1. Definition:(1)amore/lessrelation(2)termsattheen
30、dpointsofacontinuumorgradientE.g.richpoorLovehate2. Property (1) allow comparison E.g. faster/ slower (2) can be modified by “intensifying” adverbs E.g. very/ extremely hot (3) The terms do not represent absolute values E.g. How long (unmarked) How old (unmarked)ComplementaryAntonymsDefinition:1.eit
31、her/orrelation2.theassertionofoneimpliesthedenialoftheotherE.g.deadalivewinloseonoffConverseAntonymsDefinition: converse meaning of the other 1.different(converse)perspectives:E.gMaryisbehindTom.TomisinfrontofMary2.relationshipE.gMaryisTomswifeTomisMaryshusbandDirectionalAntonymsDefinition: cannot a
32、lways be distinguished from the above three types of antyonyms E.gupdowngocomearrivedepartVeryimportantintheanalysisofparticularlexicalfieldssuchaskinshiptermsInvolvesdeixisCo-ocurrence of antonyms1. It is often the case that antonyms occur together, either within the same sentence or in adjacent se
33、ntences (Fellbaum 1995). 2. Reasons: (1) certain expressions : a matter of life and death (2) emphasize a point: It is not your right. It is your obligation (3) rhetorical flourish: Is this the beginning of the end or the end of the beginning? (4) a change of state: We open at 9:00 and close at 17:0
34、0. 6.4.3HierarchicalMeaningRelations6.4.3.1 Hyponym6.4.3.2 Menonymy6.4.3.1Hyponym1.Definition:(1)therelationshipofsemanticinclusion.(2)specificgeneralHyponyms/lowertermspecificSuperordinate/uppertermgeneralAnimalMammalFishBirdReptileHumanDogWhaleSuperordinateCo-hyponymsSuperordinateCo-hyponyms2. Pro
35、perty: taxonomies of natural phenomena A is a type of B 3. Application (1) Make the text more vivid and precise (2) Make readers gain more correct understanding of the text HyponymSuperordinate6.4.3.2Meronymy1.Definition:therelationshipofpart-whole.E.g.armbodywheelcarMammalBodyBrainlegsArmsOrgansSup
36、erordinateCo-menonymsCo-menonymsSuperordinateSubordinate2.DifferencefromHyponymy:(1)TransitivityHyponymy:transitiveMeronymy:intransitiveoaktreeplantflowerPetalHyponymy HyponymyHyponymyMeronymy Meronymy ?Meronymy(2)Noclear-cutA.abstracttermsB.agivensetofitemsmaybeco-hyponymsofonetermbutco-meronymsofa
37、notherE.gchair,table,bedCo-hyponymsoffurnitureCo-meronymsoffurnishing6.5SemanticField&ComponentialAnalysis1.SemanticField:containswordsthatbelongtoadefinedareaofmeaning.E.g.apple,pear,peach,orangemakeupthesemanticfieldof“fruits”.Reflection:apple,pear,peach,orangearealsoco-hyponymsof“fruit”.Doyouthin
38、kitnecessarytodistinguishthetwoterms?2.ComponentialAnalysis:involvesaprocessofbreakingdownthemeaningofonewordintoitsminimalcomponents.E.g.Mare(母马)iscomposedofthecomponentsofEQUINE(马的),ADULT,FEMALE.6.6WordMeaningandContext6.6.1Extra-linguisticcontext6.6.2LinguisticContext6.6.3Theroleofcontext6.6WordM
39、eaningandContext1.Relationshipbetweenmeaningandcontext:thecontextdefinesmeaning.2.Twotypesofmeaning:(1)Linguisticcontext(inanarrowsense):words,clauses.Sentencesinwhichawordappears.(2)Extra-linguistics/non-linguisticcontext(inabroadsense):includesthephysicalsituationaswell.6.6.1Extra-linguisticcontex
40、t1.TwoTypes:(1)contextofculture:theentireculturalbackground(2)contextofsituation2. Examples:differentmeaningsof“quick”(1)A2-year-oldchildwaschasingducksinthepark.Thegrandmaremarkedthatthechildsfatheratthisagewasratherbackward.Theyoungmotherreplied:IdothinkAdamsquick(2)agroupofstudentswerehavingapart
41、yandeveryonelaughsatthejoketoldbyJohnexceptAdam.Adamlaughedalongtimelaterandsomeonesaid:IdothinkAdamsquick.Whatisthedifferentmeaningsbetweenthese2“quick”?1)quickindevelopingphysically2)slowasinthesenseofintelligence6.6.2LinguisticContext1.Twotypes:(1)Lexicalcontext(2)Grammaticalcontext2.Lexicalconte
42、xt:themeaningofthewordisoftenaffectedanddefinedbytheneighboringwords.E.g.apieceofpaper/awhitepaper/atermpaper/todayspaperCanyouoffermoreexamples?3.Grammaticalcontext:themeaningsofawordisinfluencedbythestructureinwhichisoccurs.E.g.become+adjShehasbecomeabeautifulgirlbecome+pronoun/nReddoesntbecomeyou
43、become+ofIdontknowwhatwillbecomeofmeifIfailinthetest.6.6.3Theroleofcontext1. Elimination of Ambiguity(1)PolysemyHeisahardbusinessmanWhatdoesitmean?Heisahardbusinessmantodealwith.(2)HomonymyTheballwasattractive?whatdoesitmean?Theballwasattractivewiththedeliciousfood.(3)GrammaticalambiguityThefishisre
44、adytoeat?whatdoesthatmean?Thefishisreadytoeatanditsmellsgood.2. Indication of referentsNow/then,here/there,this/thatdeixicalwords,withoutcontext,thereferencecanbeveryconfusing.E.g.Canyouseemeoverthere?3. Provision of clues for inferring word meaning (1) Definition E.g. Perhaps the most startling the
45、ory of come out of kinesics, the study of body movement, was suggested by Professor Birdwhistell. (2) Explanation E.g. It is just one more incredible result of the development of microprocessor those tiny parts of a computer commonly known as a silicon chips. (3) Exemplification E.g. Many United Nat
46、ions employees are polyglot. Ms Gary, for example, speak five languages. (4) Synonymy E.g. Their greatest fear was of a conflagration (火灾), since fire would destroy their filmsy wooden settlement before help could arrive.(5) Antonymy E.g. As the fighting on all fronts reached its peak, the economy n
47、eared its nadir. (6) Hyponomy E.g. The village has most of the usual amenities(便利设施): a pub, a library, a post office, a village hall, a medical center and a school.(7) Relevant details E.g. In spite of the fact the fishermen were wearing souwesters (油布防水帽), the storm was so heavy that they were wet
48、 through. (8) Word Structure E.g. Copernicus believed in a heliocentric (以太阳为中心的)universe, rather than in the geocentric (以地球为中心的) theory. Geo in geology, geography6.7 Summary1. word meaning conventional sounds and its meaning arbitrary 2. Paradigmatic meaning relations3. semantic field and componen
49、tial analysis4. relationship between meaning and context The End.Thanks for Your Attention!VocabularyEnglish WordsChinese Meaning English WordsChinese Meaning Antagonism对抗Recollection回忆Flex弯曲Simulate假装Hyponymy上下位关系Feign假装Meronymy整体-部分关系Craftiness狡猾Beseech恳求nettles荨麻Implore恳求eradicate消灭Havoc大破坏dissem
50、inate传播Devastation大破坏luxuriantly旺盛Caravan拖车salubrious有益健康的Missive信件aridity干旱repugnance厌恶deleterious有害的English WordsChinese Meaning English WordsChinese Meaning Entangle陷入Stamen雄蕊Disentangle摆脱Conflagration火灾Lichen地衣Amenities便利设施Creeper匍匐植物Souwesters油布防水帽Bindweed旋花类植物Heliocentric以太阳为中心的Conifer针叶树Geocentric以地球为中心的Deciduous落叶植物Spruce云杉Shoot新枝Stalk花梗Petal花瓣
