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1、Languages and the brainTwo areas in human brainLateralizationHow is the brain organized for multiple languages?Specific Questions Psychological Perspectives2021/3/101讲解：XXTwo Major Areas of the Human Brain Brocas area （an area in the left frontal lobe左半脑额叶) responsible for the ability to speak. Wern
2、ickes area (a nearby area adjacent to the part of the cortex脑皮层 ) responsible for language processing.2021/3/102讲解：XX2021/3/103讲解：XXLanguage is represented primarily in the left half of the brain within an area around the sylvian fissure (a cleavage separating lobes in the brain-大脑侧裂)Language activi
3、ty is not localized, but core linguistic processes are typically in the left hemisphere.2021/3/104讲解：XXhttp:/ of the two halves of the brain is known as lateralization, and is present to some extent in infancy.There is increased specialization as the brain matures and has less plasticity（可塑性）. note:
4、 plasticity: According to Lenneberg, before the end of the critical period, both hemispheres are involved to some extent in language and one can take over if the other is damaged. This neurological flexibility is called brain plasticity . lateralization (脑部的偏侧优势)2021/3/106讲解：XXCritical Period Hypoth
5、esis(关键期假说)Lenneberg children had only a limited number of years to acquire their L1 flawlessly. If they suffered brain damage to the language areas, brain plasticity in childhood would allow other areas of the brain to take over the language functions of the damaged areas, but beyond a certain age,
6、 normal language would not be possible.2021/3/107讲解：XXPrincipal Communicative Specialization of L and R HemisphereRefer to movement which may be meaningful but is nonlinguistic in nature2021/3/108讲解：XX Notes: Notes: Hemispheric specialization for language is the same regardless of whether the langua
7、ge is spoken or not.The typical distribution of primary functions is probably due to the left hemispheres being more powerful than the right and therefore better suited for processing the highly complex elements of language.2021/3/109讲解：XXHow Is the Brain Organized for Multiple Languages?Possibility
8、: multiple languages may be represented in different locations in the brain and/or have different networks of activation.Methods for gathering data 2021/3/1010讲解：XXa the relation between brain damage and the loss of languageb different languages stimuli c using electrical stimulation at precise poin
9、ts during the surgerydPosition Emission Tomography(正电子发射X射线层析照相术) 2021/3/1011讲解：XXSpecific Questions 1. How independent are the languages of multilingual speakers? 2. How are multiple language structures organized in relation to one another in the brain? Are both languages stored in the same areas?
10、3. Does the organization of the brain for L2 in relation to L1 differ with age of acquisition, how it is learned or level of proficiency? 4. Do two or more languages show the same sort of loss disruption after brain damage? When there is differential impairment or recovery, which language recover fi
11、rst？2021/3/1012讲解：XX 1. How independent are the languages of multilingual speakers?No single answer to this question (individual variation & complex factors)Conclusion: multiple language systems are neither completely separate nor completely fused.2021/3/1013讲解：XX Ervin and Osgood suggested a three-
12、way possibility for how languages relate in ones mind .Coordinate: parallel linguistic systems independent of one another;Compound: a fused or unified system (simultaneous bilingualism);Subordinate: one linguistic system accessed through another.2021/3/1014讲解：XX2. How are multiple language structure
13、s organized in relation to one another in the brain? Are both languages stored in the same areas?For most multilinguals, L1 and L2 are stored in different areas of the brain, both predominantly in areas of the left hemisphere. But right hemisphere may be more involved in L2 than L1.2021/3/1015讲解：XX3
14、. Does the organization of the brain for L2 in relation to L1 differ with age of acquisition, how it is learned or level of proficiency?Age of acquisition influences brain organization for many L2 learners. Individuals who acquire L2 later in life show more right hemisphere involvement.L2 may be lea
15、rned by many means rather than the single means found in L1 acquisition and may have a greater apparent hemispheric spread.Organization of L2 knowledge is more diffuse for lower levels of proficiency and more compact for highly fluent L2 users. 2021/3/1016讲解：XX4. Do two or more languages show the sa
16、me sort of loss disruption after brain damage? When there is differential impairment or recovery, which language recover first？Brain damage results in the same or similar patterns of loss and recovery for both /all of the most multilingual persons languages.Early hypothesis: in case of brain damage,
17、 the last learned language would be the first lost, the next-to-the-last learned the second to be lost, with L1 the last to remain; recovery was speculated to be L1 first.Obler and Gjerlow concludes: A significant factor in initial recovery is which language was most used in the years before brain d
18、amage.2021/3/1017讲解：XXBrain damageDifferent languages can be affected differentially by brain damage.Different languages lie in different areas.Different abilities in the same language may be differentially impaired. Different elements of language are located in separate parts of the brain.2021/3/10
19、18讲解：XXThis is a still photograph, your psychological pressure is greater, the picture to rotate more quickly这是一张静止的图片，这是一张静止的图片，这是一张静止的图片，这是一张静止的图片， 你的心理压力越大，图片转你的心理压力越大，图片转你的心理压力越大，图片转你的心理压力越大，图片转动越快动越快动越快动越快2021/3/1019讲解：XXThe lines are parallel! The more people you, by the society of erosion is
20、more severe, see straight the deformation.下图里的横线都是平行的！涉世越深的人，受下图里的横线都是平行的！涉世越深的人，受社会侵蚀越严重，看到的直线越变形。社会侵蚀越严重，看到的直线越变形。2021/3/1020讲解：XX Psychological Perspectivesa. behaviorismFor much of the first half of the twentieth century, behaviorism dominated psychology and education and, consequently, theories
21、 of L2 learning and teaching. Behaviorism was based on the view that all learning including language learning occurs through a process of imitation, practice, reinforcement and habit formation. 2021/3/1021讲解：XXBehaviorism came under attack when Chomsky questioned the notion that children learn their
22、 first language by repeating what they hear in the surrounding environment. He argued that children produce novel and creative utterances ones that they would never have heard in their environment. 2021/3/1022讲解：XXb. Cognitive PsychologyA branch of psychology which deals with the study of the nature
23、 of knowledge, particularly those processes involved in thought, perception, comprehension, memory, and learning. 2021/3/1023讲解：XXCognitive psychologists hypothesized that second language acquisition, like other learning, requires the learners attention and effort whether or not the learner is fully
24、 aware of what was being attended to. Some information processing theories suggested that language, like other skilled activity, is first acquired through intentional learning of what is called declarative knowledge, and then, through practice, the declarative knowledge can become “procedural knowle
25、dgeOnce language itself is largely automatic, attention can be focused on the content. The information processing model offers a useful explanation as to why learners in the initial phases of learning seem to put so much effort into understanding and producing language. 2021/3/1024讲解：XX“Declarative
26、knowledge 陈述性知识陈述性知识(factual knowledge, in cognitive psychology and learning theory) vs. procedural knowledge. 过程性知识过程性知识. Declarative knowledge is information that consists of consciously known facts, concepts or ideas. For example, an account of the tense system in English can be presented as a se
27、t of statements, rules, or facts, i.e. it can be learned as declarative knowledge (factual knowledge). This can be contrasted with procedural knowledge, that is knowledge concerning things we know how to do but which are not consciously known, such as “how to ride a bicycle”, or how to speak German”
28、. 84 2021/3/1025讲解：XXProcedural knowledge is acquired gradually through practice, and underlies the learning of skills. Many aspects of second language learning consist of procedural rather than declarative knowledge. Other theorists make a similar contrast between controlled and automatic processin
29、g. controlled processing 授控处理(e.g. Learn to drive; learn English)automatic processing (occurring quickly and with minimal attention and effort)自动处理( e.g. carry out a task; use English to communicate) 2021/3/1026讲解：XXThe learners four tasks1. AnalysisThe learner has to segment (切分成语段）the stream of ac
30、oustic signals into constituent（构成成份） .2. SynthesisThe learner has to try to put the sounds and words he has leant together in order to produce and comprehend L2 utterances. 2021/3/1027讲解：XX3. Embedding (嵌入）The news that (he had got married) surprised his friends.The learner has to make utterances f
31、it the contextsituational and linguistic in which they occur. This requires a sort of balance of linguistic and contextual information.4. MatchingThe learner must continuously compare his current language variety with the target variety. 2021/3/1028讲解：XX2021/3/1029讲解：XXc. Connectionism 连接主义指将一种基于数字计
32、算而不是符号操作、模拟认知功能的计算框架应用于语言学。模拟假设在大脑中起作用的各种结构和过程，网络的处理单位叫做神经元或节点,每一个单位从与其连接的其他单位获取信息，从而或被激活或被抑制。 2021/3/1030讲解：XXMany connectionism studies provide evidence to support associative accounts of learning. There is growing interest in this explanation for second language acquisition. Researchers working w
33、ithin these frameworks are proposing that language is represented in the mind as a very large number of linguistic units with varying degrees of likelihood (可能性）of co-occurrence, rather than as a set of linguistic rules for creating novel（新的） sentences. 2021/3/1031讲解：XXd. Multidimensional Model 多维模型
34、多维模型The syntactic （句法句法）and morphological （词法）（词法）features were referred to as developmental. Other features referred to as variational, appeared to be learned by some but not all learners and, in any case, did not appear to be learned in a fixed sequence. 2021/3/1032讲解：XXDevelopmental: Second langu
35、age learners acquire certain syntactic and morphological features of the L2 in predictable stages. Variational: L2 is not learned in a fixed sequence. 90-2021/3/1033讲解：XXBecause each stage reflected an increase in complexity, a learner had to grasp one stage before moving to the next, and it was not
36、 possible to skip a stage. One of the pedagogical implications drawn from the research related to the Multidimensional Model is the Teachability Hypothesis that learners can only be taught what they are psycholinguistically ready to learn. (e.g. present tense, present continuous tense, future tense, past tense, present perfect tense) 2021/3/1034讲解：XX感谢您的阅读收藏，谢谢！2021/3/1035
