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1、General General LinguisticsLinguistics 普通语言学普通语言学2课程的性质、地位和意义课程的性质、地位和意义n n课程中文名称：普通语言学概论n n课程英文名称：Generallinguisticsn n课程性质：专业必修课n n课程学时和学分：36学时，2学分n n适用专业：英语专业n n先修课程：语音、语法n n开课系、部、教研室：外语系语言学教研室3课程的教学目的课程的教学目的n n英语语言学是高校英语语言文学专业学生的必修课程，是加强学生语言学理论修养和基础知识的重要途径。本课程目的在于让学生了解语言学理论的基本概念、基本理论、语言学各个研究领域及其
2、代表人物；培养和提高学生运用语言学理论解释分析和运用语言的能力，并发展其创新精神和创造能力，为学生进一步攻读硕士学位或毕业后直接从事英语教学工作或其他英语语言文字工作打下坚实基础。4课程的教学要求课程的教学要求n n内容上，既要传授基础理论知识也要反映语言学中的最新发展，要求学生理解深，力求贯通，比较，自创。n n观点上，不拘泥于一派之说。要求学生了解各派理论并分析其优劣。n n讲授本书内容可详可简，授课教师可根据学校的教学方案和学生程度进行调整。5教学重点教学重点n n对课程总体内容的了解n n对语言和语言学基本原理的理解n n对语言和语言学专门知识的理解和分析6教学难点教学难点n n运用理
3、论知识分析语言现象和问题n n内容上，既要传授基础理论知识也要反映语言学中的最新发展，要求学生理解深，力求贯通，比较，自创。n n观点上，不拘泥于一派之说。要求学生了解各派理论并分析其优劣。n n讲授本书内容可详可简，授课教师可根据学校的教学方案和学生程度进行调整。7考核方式及要求考核方式及要求n n考核方式：考试。主要考查学生对语言学基本理论和基础知识及其应用的掌握程度。n n客观题：60%-70%n n主观题：30%-40%n n教材内容：70%-80%n n课外内容：20%-30%n n课堂出勤与表现：10%n n期中考查20%n n期末考试：70%8教材及参考书目教材及参考书目n n胡
4、壮麟语言学教程第三版北京大学出版社2006n n胡壮麟姜望琪语言学教程（中译本）n n胡壮麟语言学教程练习册第三版2007n n胡壮麟语言学教程（修订版）2001n n胡壮麟姜望琪语言学高级教程9n nBussmann,H.Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguisticsn nH.GWiddowsonLinguisticsOxfordUniversityPress1996n nR.H.RobinsGeneral LinguisticsLongman1989n nA.Radford,M.Atkinson,D.Britain,H.Clashsen&A
5、.SpencerLinguistics : An IntroductionCambridgeUniversityPress1999n nS.C.PooleAn Introduction to Linguistics MacmillanPublishersLtd199910n n戴炜栋、何兆熊等简明英语语言学教程（修订版），上海外语教育出版社，1989n n丁言仁英语语言学纲要，上海外语教育出版社，2001n n王钢普通语言学教程湖南教育出版社198811n n牛津语言学入门丛书上海外语教育出版社2000n n牛津应用语言学丛书上海外语教育出版社1999n n当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库外语教
6、学与研究出版社2000n n语言学系列教材湖南教育出版社1988Chapter One Invitations to Linguistics13n nWhystudylanguage?Whystudylanguage?n nWhatislanguage?Whatislanguage?n nDesignfeaturesoflanguageDesignfeaturesoflanguagen nOriginoflanguageOriginoflanguagen nFunctionsoflanguageFunctionsoflanguagen nWhatislinguistics?Whatisling
7、uistics?n nMainbranchesoflinguisticsMainbranchesoflinguisticsn nMacrolinguisticsMacrolinguisticsn nImportantdistinctionsinlinguisticsImportantdistinctionsinlinguistics14n n通过本章的学习使学生对语言学有初步的认识，了解语言的定义、本质特征、起源、功能以及语言学的定义、主要分支、宏观语言学和语言学中的一些重要区别，为学生进一步学习语言学打下基础。151. Why Study Language?Linguisticsisabra
8、nchofsciencewhichtakeslanguageasitsfocusofstudy.16What does “language” mean?1.He uses very bad language. He is very good at language.2.Shakespeares language, 60s language, old mans language3. formal language, scientific language, written or spoken language4.theEnglish /French/ Chinese language5.He s
9、tudies language.17What does “language” mean?n n1.ingenerallanguagecanmeanwhatapersonsaysorsaidn n2.inparticular,useoflanguage,aconstantwayofspeakingorwritingn n3.varietyoflanguagen n4.specificlanguagen n5.thecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages181.1 Some myths about languagen nLanguage is only a means
10、of communication.n nLanguage has a form-meaning correspondence.n nThe function of language is to exchange information.n nEnglish is more difficult to learn than Chinese.n nBlack English is not standard and should be reformed.191.2 Some fundamental views about Ln nChildren learn their native language
11、 swiftly, efficiently and without instruction.n nLanguage operates by rules.n nAll languages have three major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics.n nEveryone speaks a dialect.n nLanguage slowly changes.20n nSpeakers of all languages employ a range of style
12、s and a set of jargons.n nLanguages are intimately related to the societies and individuals who use them.n nWriting is derivative of speech.212. What is Language?Language “is not to be confused with human speech, of which it is only a definite part, though certainly an essential one. It is both a so
13、cial product of the faculty of speech and a collection of necessary conventions that have been adopted by a social body to permit individuals to exercise that faculty”.-Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913): Course in General Linguistics (1916)22“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of
14、communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”-Edward Sapir (1884-1939):Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech (1921)23“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operates.”-Bernard Bloch (1907-1965)& George T
15、rager (1906-1992): Outline of Linguistic Analysis (1942)“A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture.”-George Trager: The Field of Linguistics (1949)24“From now on I will consider language to be a set (finite o
16、r infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”-Noam Chomsky (1928- ): Syntactic Structures (1957)25Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.”-Rob
17、ert A. Hall (1911-1997): Introductory Linguistics (1964)26“The question What is language? is comparable with - and, some would say, hardly less profound than - What is life?, the presuppositions of which circumscribe and unify the biological sciences. it is not so much the question itself as the par
18、ticular interpretation that the biologist puts upon it and the unravelling of its more detailed implications within some currently accepted theoretical framework that nourish the biologists day-to-day speculations and research. So it is for the linguist in relation to the question What is language?”
19、-John Lyons (1932- ): Language and Linguistics (1981) 27“. in a sense all definitions of language are, by themselves, inadequate, since, if they are to be more than trivial and uninformative, they must presuppose . some general theory of language and of linguistic analysis.”-R. H. Robins (1921-2000)
20、: General Linguistics (1989)28“Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”-Stuart C. Poole: An Introduction to Linguistics (1999)29“Language is a means of verbal communication.”n nIt is instrumental in that It is instrumental in
21、 that communicating by speaking or writing communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. is a purposeful act. n nIt is social and conventional in that It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and language is a social semiotic and communication can only take pla
22、ce communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and n
23、onverbal cues, motivation, and sociosocio- -cultural roles.cultural roles. - Our textbook (2006)30“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”-Ronald Wardhaugh: Introduction to Linguistics (1977)n nSystem:elementsinlanguagearearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;theycan
24、notbecombinedatwill.n nArbitrary:thereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordpenandthethingweusetowritewith.Differentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforit.31“Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.”n nVocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages,nomatterhowwelldevelope
25、daretheirwritingsystems.n nSymbolic:wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsandideasbyconventions.n nHuman:languageishuman-specific.323. Design Features of Languagen nLanguage distinguishes human beings from animals in that it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system. 33Human lang
26、uage is uniquen nArbitrariness n nDuality n nCreativity n nDisplacementn nCultural transmission n nInterchangeability 343.1 Arbitrariness n nSaussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning n nArbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning
27、, even with onomatopoeic words:n nThe dog barks The dog barks wow wow wowwow in English but in English but “ “汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪汪” ” in Chinese. in Chinese. 35n nArbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.n nHe came in and sat down.He came in and sat down.n nHe s
28、at down and came in.He sat down and came in.n nHe sat down after he came in.He sat down after he came in.n nThe link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.363.2 Duality n nThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed
29、 of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization:n nPrimary units Primary units wordswords (meaningful) consist (meaningful) consist of secondary units of secondary units soundssounds (meaningless). (meaningless).37n nHierarchy of language: strati
30、fication as the infinite use of finite means.n nSounds syllables morphemes words Sounds syllables morphemes words phrases clauses phrases clauses sentences/utterances texts/discoursessentences/utterances texts/discourses383.3 Creativity n nLanguage is resourceful because of its duality and its recur
31、siveness. We can use it to create new meanings.n nWords can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.39n nBirds, bees, crabs, spiders, and most other creatures communicate in some way, but the information imparted
32、is severely limited and confined to a small set of messages. n nBecause of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.40n nThe recursive nature of language provides a potential to crea
33、te an infinite number of sentences. For instance:n nHe bought a book He bought a book whichwhich was written by a was written by a teacher teacher whowho taught in a school taught in a school whichwhich was was known for its graduates known for its graduates whowho . .413.4 Displacement n nHuman lan
34、guages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. n nThus, we can refer to Confucius, or Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first the North Pole, even though the first has bee
35、n dead for over 2550 years has been dead for over 2550 years and the second is situated far away and the second is situated far away from us. from us. 42n nAnimal communication is normally under “immediate stimulus control”. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. n nHuman
36、language is stimulus-free. What we are talking about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state. 43n nThe honeybees dance exhibits displacement a little bit: he can refer to a source of food, which is remote in time and space when he reports on it. n nA dog can
37、not tell people that its master will be home in a few days. n nOur language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.44n nDisplacement benefits human beings by giving us the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Once we can talk about physically distan
38、t thing, we acquire the ability to understand concepts which denote “non-things”, such as truth and beauty. 453.5 Cultural transmission n nLanguage is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.463.6 Interchangeabilityn nAny human being can be both a
39、producer and a receiver of messages.These 6 major design features seem to show that language is human-specific.474. Origin of language n nThe Divine origin:n n“ “In the beginning was the In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was with God, and t
40、he Word was God.God.” ” (Gospel, John 1: 1)(Gospel, John 1: 1)太初有道太初有道, ,道与神同在道与神同在, ,道就是神。道就是神。 约翰福音约翰福音约翰福音约翰福音1: 11: 148n nNow the LORD God had formed Now the LORD God had formed out of the ground all the beasts out of the ground all the beasts of the field and all the birds of of the field and a
41、ll the birds of the air. He brought them to the the air. He brought them to the man to see what he would man to see what he would name them; and whatever the name them; and whatever the man called each living creature, man called each living creature, that was its name. So the man that was its name.
42、 So the man gave names to all the livestock, gave names to all the livestock, the birds of the air and all the the birds of the air and all the beasts of the field.beasts of the field. （GenesisGenesis，2 2）49n n4 4 Then they said, Come, let Then they said, Come, let us build ourselves a city, us buil
43、d ourselves a city, with a tower that reaches to with a tower that reaches to the heavens, so that we may the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves make a name for ourselves and not be scattered over and not be scattered over the face of the whole earth.“the face of the whole earth.“ (Ge
44、nesis创世纪创世纪, 11) n n1 Now the whole world had one language and a 1 Now the whole world had one language and a common speech. common speech. 50n n5 But the LORD came down to see the city and 5 But the LORD came down to see the city and the tower that the men were building.the tower that the men were
45、building.n n6 The LORD said, If as one people speaking the 6 The LORD said, If as one people speaking the same language they have begun to do this, then same language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them.
46、them. n n7 Come, let us go down and confuse their 7 Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand each other. language so they will not understand each other. n n8 So the LORD scattered them from there over 8 So the LORD scattered them from there over all the earth, and
47、 they stopped building the city. all the earth, and they stopped building the city. 51n n9 That is why it was called Babel-because there 9 That is why it was called Babel-because there the LORD confused the language of the whole the LORD confused the language of the whole world. From there the LORD
48、scattered them world. From there the LORD scattered them over the face of the whole earth.over the face of the whole earth. 52 nPeople used to think that language had the power to make things happen.nIf one uttered a curse that a person would be struck by lightning, the person would surely die a vio
49、lent death.nIn many cultures wouds were used to control events and became souces of power if chanted again and again.nIt was taboo to speak of sinkingand overturn on a ship, because these words were believed to have the magic to turn the ship over.54 554.1 The “bow-wow” theoryn nIn primitive times p
50、eople imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that. n nOnomatopoeicOnomatopoeic words seem to be a words seem to be a convenient evidence for this theory. But they convenient evidence for this theory. But they are very different in the deg
51、ree of are very different in the degree of resemblance they express with the natural resemblance they express with the natural sounds. sounds. n nThis theory lacks supportive evidence. 564.2 The “pooh-pooh” theoryn nIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain,
52、anger and joy. As for evidence, we can only cite the universal use of sounds as interjections. n nWhat makes the theory problematic is that What makes the theory problematic is that there is only a limited number of there is only a limited number of interjections in almost all languages. interjectio
53、ns in almost all languages. n nBesides, interjections such asBesides, interjections such as Oh, Ah, Oops Oh, Ah, Oops bear little relationship with the sound bear little relationship with the sound system of a language and therefore are not system of a language and therefore are not good evidence.go
54、od evidence.574.3 The “yo-he-ho” theoryn nAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language. We do have prosodic We do have prosodic use of rhythms in use of rhythms in languages, but languages, but rhythmic grunts ar
55、e rhythmic grunts are far different from far different from language in its language in its present sense. The present sense. The theory is again at theory is again at most a speculation.most a speculation.58n nThe by-now fruitless search for the origin of languages reflects peoples concern with the
56、 origin of humanity and may come up with enlightening findings in future. n nOne thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts. 595. Functions of language n nLinguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is,
57、 not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc. n nThey summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions of language.60n nFor Jakobson, language is above all for communic
58、ation. n nWhile for many people, the While for many people, the purpose of communication is purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the referential, for him (and the Prague school Prague school structuralistsstructuralists), ), reference is not the only, not reference is not the only,
59、not even the primary goal of even the primary goal of communication. communication. 61n nIn his famous article, Linguistics and Poetics, he defined six primary factors of any speech event, namely:n nspeaker, addressee, context, message, code, speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact.conta
60、ct.n nIn conjunction with these, Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely: 62n nreferential (to convey message and information),n npoetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),n nemotive (to express attitudes, feelin
61、gs and emotions),n nconative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), n nphatic (to establish communion with others)n nmetalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).63n nThey correspond to such communication elements as context, message, addresser, addressee, contact and
62、 code respectively. n nJakobsons views of the functions of language are still of great importance.64ContextREFERENTIALAddresserEMOTIVE(e.g. intonation showing anger)MessagePOETIC(e.g. poetry)AddresseeCONATIVE(e.g. imperatives and vocatives)ContactPHATIC(e.g. Good morning!)CodeMETALINGUAL(e.g. Hello,
63、 do you hear me?)65n nHalliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational, interpersonal and textual functions. n nIdeational function constructs a model of experience as well as logical relations, interpersonal function enacts social relationships and textual f
64、unction creates relevance to context.66n nIn his earlier works, Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development: n nInstrumentalInstrumentaln nRegulatoryRegulatoryn nRepresentationalRepresentationaln nInteractionalInteractionaln nPersonalPersonaln nHe
65、uristicHeuristicn nImaginativeImaginative67n nStill other classifications employ different categories and use different terms, but all share a lot in common about the basic functions of language. n nBelow is a summary of the Below is a summary of the major functions of language. major functions of l
66、anguage. 685.1 Informativefunctionn nLanguage is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. The informative function is indeed a crucial function of language.n nIt is also called
67、 It is also called ideationalideational function in the function in the framework of functional grammar. framework of functional grammar. 69n nHalliday notes that n n“ “Language serves for the expression of Language serves for the expression of contentcontent : that is, of the speakers : that is, of
68、 the speakers experience of the real world, including the experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. . In inner world of his own consciousness. . In serving this function, language also gives serving this function, language also gives structure to experience, a
69、nd helps to structure to experience, and helps to determine our way of looking at things, so determine our way of looking at things, so that it requires some intellectual effort to that it requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which see them in any other way than t
70、hat which our language suggests to usour language suggests to us” ”. .705.2 Interpersonal function n nBy far the most important sociological use of language, and by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.n nIn the framework of functional grammar, the interpersonal function is
71、concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in the discourse situation and the addressers attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.71n nFor example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves (e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient s
72、ervant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations. 72n nLanguage serves to establish and maintain social rules, which include the communication roles created by language itself - for example the roles of questioner and respondent, which we take on by asking or answering a question; Thro
73、ugh this function, social groups are delimited, and the individual is identified and reinforced, since by enabling him to interact with others language also serves in the expression and development of his own personality (Halliday, in Lyons, 1970: 143)73n nAttached to the interpersonal function is i
74、ts function of expressing identity. For example, n nthe chanting of a crowd at a football match, the chanting of a crowd at a football match, n nthe shouting of names or slogans at public the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings, meetings, n nthe stage-managed audience reactions to TV the
75、 stage-managed audience reactions to TV game shows game shows n nThey all signal who we are and where we They all signal who we are and where we belong. belong. 74n nLanguage marks our identity, physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints; psychologically in terms of language, personality and i
76、ntelligence; geographically in terms of accents and dialects; ethnically and socially in terms of social stratification, class, status, role, solidarity and distance.75n nThe interpersonal function is such a broad category that it is often discussed under various other terms as in the following perf
77、ormative, emotive, expressive and phatic functions of language. They seem to emphasize different aspects of the interpersonal function.765.3 Performative functionn nThis concept originates from the philosophical study of language represented by Austin and Searle, whose theory now forms the back-bone
78、 of pragmatics. n nI now declare the meeting open. I now declare the meeting open. n nI bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow. I bet you two pounds it will rain tomorrow. 77n nThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the
79、 sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies. n nThe kind of language employed in The kind of language employed in performativeperformative verbal acts is verbal acts is usually quite formal and even usually quite formal
80、 and even ritualized.ritualized.78n nFor example, in Chinese when For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people plate the host or the people present are likely to say present are likely to say 岁岁平岁岁平岁岁平岁岁平安安安安 as a means of controllin
81、g the as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their believers feel might affect their lives adversely. lives adversely. n nThe performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.
82、795.4 Emotive functionn nThe emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. n nIt is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. swear
83、 words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to a piece of art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, e.g. n nGod, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, God, My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh. Oh. 80n nIt is also discussed under the term expressive function. The expressive function can of
84、ten be entirely personal and totally without any implication of communication to others. n nFor example, a man may say For example, a man may say Ouch!Ouch! after striking a fingernail with a after striking a fingernail with a hammer, or he may mutter hammer, or he may mutter DamnDamn when realizing
85、 that he has when realizing that he has forgotten an appointment. forgotten an appointment. 81n nExclamations such as Man! Oh boy! and Hurrah! are usually uttered without any purpose of communicating to others, but as essentially a verbal response to a persons own feelings. n nSuch expressive uttera
86、nces can also be a Such expressive utterances can also be a communal response of a group of people communal response of a group of people who reinforce one anothers expressive use who reinforce one anothers expressive use of language to show their solidarity.of language to show their solidarity.825.
87、5 Phatic communion n nPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language, originating from Malinowskis study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders. For example,n nMrs. P sneezes violently.Mrs. P sneezes violently. n nMrs. Q: Mrs. Q: Bless you.Bless you.n nMrs. P: M
88、rs. P: Thank you.Thank you.83n nWe all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. n nRitual exchanges about health or weather Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as such as Good morning, God
89、 bless you, Nice Good morning, God bless you, Nice dayday often state the obvious. Yet they indicate often state the obvious. Yet they indicate that a channel of communication is open if it that a channel of communication is open if it should be needed. should be needed. 84n nDifferent cultures have
90、 different topics of phatic communion. n nAccording to David Crystal, the According to David Crystal, the weather is not a universal weather is not a universal conversation filler as the English conversation filler as the English might like to think. might like to think. n nRundiRundi women (in Buru
91、ndi, Central women (in Burundi, Central Africa), upon taking leave, Africa), upon taking leave, routinely and politely say routinely and politely say “ “I must I must go home now, or my husband will go home now, or my husband will beat me.beat me.” ” 85n nBroadly speaking, this function refers to ex
92、pressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slang, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects. n nWe have to learn a large repertoire of such We have to learn a large repertoire of such usagesusages if we are to interact comfortably w
93、ith if we are to interact comfortably with different people. different people. 865.6 Recreational function n nThe recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulness. n nHowever, no one will deny the use of langua
94、ge for the sheer joy of using it, such as a babys babbling or a chanters chanting. 87n nIn the Latin and Islamic worlds as well as in some areas of China, there is widespread use of verbal dueling, in which one singer begins a song of usually few lines and challenges his opponent to continue the con
95、tent or provide a rejoinder in a similar rhythm and rhyme scheme. n nSuch verbal duels may last for a few Such verbal duels may last for a few hours and is performed for the hours and is performed for the sheer joy of playing on language. sheer joy of playing on language. 88n nTo take one example, t
96、he well-known movie刘三姐刘三姐features a scene of “对歌对歌” (song dueling) mostly for the sheer joy of playing on language.89n nIf you observe a childrens play, you will find the power of sound. Sometimes even nonsensical lyrics perform a recreational function in the game: n nthe the repetitive rhythmsrepet
97、itive rhythms help to control the help to control the game, and the children plainly take great game, and the children plainly take great delight in it. Adults also have their way to delight in it. Adults also have their way to appreciate language for its own sake. appreciate language for its own sa
98、ke. 90n nFor instance, poetry writing gives them the pleasure of using language for its sheer beauty. n nVery close here to Very close here to JakobsonsJakobsons poetic poetic function.function.915.7 Metalingual function n nOur language can be used to talk about itself. n nTo organize any written te
99、xt into a coherent whole, writers employ certain expressions to keep their readers informed about where they are and where they are going. 92n nFor instance, instead of saying n nThe lion chased the unicorn The lion chased the unicorn all round the town, all round the town, n nthey say n nAll around
100、 the town the All around the town the lion chased the unicorn. lion chased the unicorn. A unicorn93n nThis is the metalingual function of language and meshes with the thematic function of language in functional grammar.n nIt makes the language infinitely self-It makes the language infinitely self-re
101、flexive: We human beings can talk about reflexive: We human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only talk and think about thinking, and thus only humans can ask what it means to humans can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be municate, to think, to be human.946
102、. What is Linguistics?n nThe scientific study of human languagen nAims of linguistic theory:n nWhat is knowledge of language? What is knowledge of language? ( (CompetenceCompetence) )n nHow is knowledge of language acquired? How is knowledge of language acquired? ( (AcquisitionAcquisition) )n nHow i
103、s knowledge of language put to use? How is knowledge of language put to use? ( (PerformancePerformance/ /languagelanguage processingprocessing) )95n nA grammar includes everything one knows about the structure of ones language:n nPhonetics and PhonologyPhonetics and Phonology (the sounds and the (th
104、e sounds and the sound system or patterns)sound system or patterns)n nLexiconLexicon (the words or vocabulary in the (the words or vocabulary in the mental dictionary)mental dictionary)n nMorphologyMorphology (the structure of words)(the structure of words)n nSyntaxSyntax (the structure of phrases a
105、nd sentences (the structure of phrases and sentences and the constraints on well-and the constraints on well-formednessformedness of of sentences)sentences)n nSemanticsSemantics (the meaning of words and (the meaning of words and sentences)sentences)967. Main branches of linguisticsn nPhoneticsn nPh
106、onologyn nMorphologyn nSyntaxn nSemanticsn nPragmatics977.1 Phoneticsn nPhonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.98n
107、 nWe can approach it on various levels. n nspeech sounds production speech sounds production articulatoryarticulatory phoneticsphonetics. . n nThe properties of the sound waves The properties of the sound waves acoustic phoneticsacoustic phonetics. . n nSound perception Sound perception auditory pho
108、neticsauditory phonetics. . 997.2 Phonology n nPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. n nA A phonemephoneme is the small
109、est linguistic unit of is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in sound that can signal a difference in meaning. meaning. 1007.3 Morphology n nMorphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-for
110、mation processes. n nWords can be broken down into still smaller Words can be broken down into still smaller units, called units, called morphemesmorphemes. . 1017.4 Syntax n nSyntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences. n nThe form or structure of a sentence is The for
111、m or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax, which governed by the rules of syntax, which specify word order, sentence organization, specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word and the relationships between words, word classes and other se
112、ntence elements. classes and other sentence elements. 102n nWe know that words are organized into structures more than just word order. n nThe children watched the firework from the The children watched the firework from the hill .hill .n nThe children watched the firework from The children watched
113、the firework from the hill .the hill .n nThe chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken is too hot to eat. 1037.5 Semantics n nSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. n nIt is not only concerned with meanings of It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also w
114、ith levels of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences. meaning of morphemes and sentences. 104n nThe following are what the key concepts look like: n nsemantic componentss
115、emantic componentsn ndenotation of wordsdenotation of wordsn nsense relationssense relations between words such as between words such as antonymyantonymy and and synonymysynonymyn nsense relationssense relations between sentences such as between sentences such as entailmententailment and and presupp
116、ositionpresupposition and others. and others.1057.6 Pragmatics n nPragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence inte
117、rpretation. 106n nIt regards speech performance as primarily a social act ruled by various social conventions. n nSome key concepts such as reference, force, effect, and cooperative principles may appear commonsensical, yet pragmatics is just about one of the most promising fields of linguistic stud
118、ies. 107Phonetics Speech soundssoundsystemPhonologySoundpatterns,SoundsystemMorphologyWordformationstructureSyntaxSentenceformationSemanticsMeaningmeaningPragmaticsMeaninginuse/context1088. Macrolinguistics n nLinguistics is not the only field concerned with language. n nOther disciplines such as ps
119、ychology, sociology, ethnography, the science of law and artificial intelligence etc. are also preoccupied with language. 109n nAlthough Saussures goal was to establish the autonomy of linguistics, with its coming of age linguistics is developing interactive links with other sciences. n nThe central
120、 : general, descriptive linguistics. The central : general, descriptive linguistics. n nMacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics shows an interdisciplinary shows an interdisciplinary nature.nature.1108.1 Psycholinguistics n nPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, for example,
121、 in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition. n nIt also studies language development in the It also studies language development in the child, such as the theories of language child, such as the theories of language acquisition, biological foundations of acquisition, biologic
122、al foundations of language, and a profound aspectlanguage, and a profound aspectthe the relationship between language and relationship between language and cognition.cognition.1118.2 Sociolinguistics n nSociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics o
123、f their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community. n nAn umbrella term which covers a variety of An umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, different interests in language
124、and society, including the social functions of language including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users. and the social characteristics of its users. 1128.3 Anthropological linguistics n nAnthropology is interested primarily in the history and structure of form
125、erly unwritten languages. n nAnthropology and linguistics became closely associated in the early days of anthropological fieldwork when anthropologists enlisted the help of linguists to study unwritten languages. 113n nBecause an unwritten language must be heard in order to be studied, it does not l
126、eave any traces once its speakers died off. n nAnthropological linguists must begin in the Anthropological linguists must begin in the present, with comparisons of contemporary present, with comparisons of contemporary languages. languages. n nThen they may draw inferences about the Then they may dr
127、aw inferences about the kinds of change in language that may have kinds of change in language that may have occurred in the past and that may account occurred in the past and that may account for similarities and differences observed in for similarities and differences observed in the present. the p
128、resent. 1148.4 Computational linguistics n nComputational linguistics centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language (also known as “natural language”, to distinguish it from computer languages). n nUnderstand the special properties of Understand the special properties of l
129、anguage data, and provide theories and language data, and provide theories and descriptions of language structure and use. descriptions of language structure and use. 115n nSome current application areas include translating from one language to another (Machine Translation), storing and finding rele
130、vant documents in large collections of text (Corpus Linguistics and Information Retrieval), and carrying out various forms of computer mediated communication. 1169. Important distinctions in linguistics n nDescriptive vs. prescriptive n nSynchronic vs. diachronicn nLangue & parolen nCompetence and p
131、erformanceprescriptive descriptive Dont say X.People dont say X.prescribe how things ought to be；lay down rules for the correct use of language . describe how things are.In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. traditional grammar was very strongly normative
132、in charactermodern linguisticsThe nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.118Humorous grammar rulesJJNever end a sentence with a preposition.JJAnd dont start a sentence with a conjunction.JJIt is wrong to ever split an infinitive.JJAvo
133、id cliches like the plague. (Theyre old hat.)JJAlso, always avoid annoying alliteration.JJNo sentence fragments.JJYou should never use a double-negative。1199.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic n nA synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of obse
134、rvation. Most grammars are of this kind. n nDiachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.1209.3 Langue & parole n nLangue and parole is a distinction made by Saussure from a sociological viewpoint early in last century. 121LANGUEPAROLEThe abstract linguistic sy
135、stem shared by all members of a speech communityThe actualized language, or realization of langue, active use of speakingcollectivityindividualA social product, a set of conventions, the generalized rules of languageThe concrete use of the convention or application of the rulesAbstractSpecificNot ac
136、tually spoken by anyoneA naturally occurring eventStable and systematicPersonal and situationalEssential Accessory, accidentalLANGUEPAROLEthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerthe actual phenomena ordataoflinguistics(utterances)thelinguistsproperobjectisthelangueofeachcommunity,thelexicon,grammar,andph
137、onologyimplantedineachindividualbyhisupbringinginsocietyandonthebasisofwhichhespeaksandunderstandshislanguage.paroleconstitutestheimmediatelyaccessibledataTask:toabstractlanguefrominstancesofparole.1239.4 Competence and performance n nThis fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky from a psych
138、ological viewpoint in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965). CompetencePerformanceA language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. the actual use of language in concrete situations.Complete, perfectnot complete, perfect. the underlying compete
139、nce as a system of generative processes.psychological,andpersonal.Task: to determine from the data of performance the underlying linguistic competence of the language user.Communicative competence125n nChomsky points out that this distinction is related to the langue-parole distinction of Saussure; but he does not accept the view of seeing langue as a mere systematic inventory of items.
