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1、Cross-Cultural Management西安电子科技大学西安电子科技大学 杜杜 荣荣Cross-Cultural ManagementChapter 1 Meanings and Dimensions of CultureOutlineChap1-1 Cross-cultural managementChap1-2 GlobalizationChap1-3 Definitions of cultureChap1-4 Nature of culture Chap1-5 Cultural valuesChap1-6 Dimensions of cultureChap1-7 Attitud
2、inal Dimensions of CultureChap1-8 Trompenaars s Cultural Dimensions2Cross-Cultural ManagementChap1-1Cross-cultural management3Cross-Cultural ManagementWhat is Cross-Cultural Management?CCM is a fairly new field that is based on theories and research from:Cross Cultural PsychologyInternational Busine
3、ssOrganizational BehaviourHuman ResourcesAnthropology4Cross-Cultural ManagementGoals for Cross-Cultural ManagementCross Cultural Management seeks tounderstand how national cultures affect management practicesidentify the similarities and differences across cultures in various management practices an
4、d organizational contextsincrease effectiveness in global management5Cross-Cultural ManagementGlobalizationChap1-26Cross-Cultural ManagementGlobalizationLike it or not, globalization is hereto stay.Most large companies have some kind of business relations with customers, companies, employees or vari
5、ous stake-holders in other countriesand cultures. (Global corporations)Many employees and managers deal with people from other cultures on a constant basisMost of us have a close experience with only one or two cultures=7Cross-Cultural ManagementGlobalizationWe do not understand people from other cu
6、ltures as readily and intuitively as people from our own culture =Cross cultural management helps organization members to gain better understanding of other cultures, of their culture and of the consequences of people from different cultures working together8Cross-Cultural ManagementDefinitions of c
7、ultureChap1-39Cross-Cultural ManagementCultureDefinition: acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate social behavior.Culture forms values, creates attitude, influences behavior.10Cross-Cultural ManagementNature of cultureChap1-411Cross-Cultural ManagementCultureCharacter
8、istics of culture include:LearnedSharedTransgenerationalSymbolicPatterned Adaptive12Cross-Cultural ManagementCultural diversity(P4: Culture and types of handshake)Cultural values(P5: Priorities of cultural values: US, Japan)(P5: examples where culture can affect management approaches)Depict cultural
9、 diversity through concentric circles.13Cross-Cultural ManagementCultural valuesChap1-514Cross-Cultural ManagementPriorities of Cultural ValuesUnited States 1. Freedom 2. Independence 3. Self-reliance 4. Equality 5. Individualism 6. Competition 7. Efficiency 8. Time 9. Directness10. OpennessArab Cou
10、ntries 1. Family security 2. Family harmony 3. Parental guidance 4. Age 5. Authority 6. Compromise 7. Devotion 8. Patience 9. Indirectness10. HospitalityJapan 1. Belonging 2. Group harmony 3. Collectiveness 4. Age/seniority 5. Group consensus 6. Cooperation 7. Quality 8. Patience 9. Indirectness10.
11、Go-between15Cross-Cultural ManagementManagement Approaches Affected by Cultural DiversityCultural DiversitySort-term vs.long-term horizonsStability vs.innovationIndividual vs.group rewardsCooperation petitionCentralized vs. Decentralizeddecision makingInformal vs.formal proceduresSafety vs. riskHigh
12、 vs. loworganizationalloyalty16Cross-Cultural ManagementIntroduction to the course of cross-cultural management and our international teaching teamGoals for Cross-cultural managementNature of culture Summary of what we learned last week 17Cross-Cultural ManagementA model of culture: concentric circl
13、esComparing culture as a normal distributionValues in cultureHofstedes cultural dimensions We will learn today 18Cross-Cultural ManagementA model of culture: concentric circlesExplicit artifacts andproducts of the societyImplicit, basic assumptions that guidepeoples behaviorNorms and valuesthat guid
14、e the societyOuter layer: observable, e.g. language, food, buildings, art.Middle layer: helps people understand how they should behave.Inner layer: intangible, helpful for problem-solving and well interactions with other people.19Cross-Cultural ManagementComparing Cultures as Overlapping Normal Dist
15、ributionChinese Culture?U.S. Culture?20Cross-Cultural ManagementStereotyping from the Cultural Extremes: Brugha and Dus researchChinese CultureU.S. CultureHow Americans see the Chinese in community avoid confrontation (keep in harmony) respect for authorities and seniorsHow Chinese see Americans ind
16、ividualism face confrontation (arguments and debates) respect for achievements21Cross-Cultural ManagementValues in CultureValues: basic convictions that people have regarding what is right and wrong, good and bad, important and unimportant.Value differences and similarities across cultures: P 10: “c
17、ommon personal values” U.S. Values and possible alternativesValues in transition: work values change over time.22Cross-Cultural ManagementDominant Western Values in WorkforceCareerStageEntered theWorkforceApproximateCurrent AgeDominant Work Values1. Protestant Work Ethic2. Existential3. Pragmatic4.
18、Generation XMid-1940s toLate 1950s1960s to Mid-1970sMid-1970s toMid-1980sMid-1980sthrough 1990s50 to 6535 to 5035 to 35Under 25Hard working; loyal tofirm; conservative Nonconforming; seeksautonomy; loyal to selfAmbitious, hard worker;loyal to careerFlexible, values leisure;loyal to relationships23Cr
19、oss-Cultural ManagementDimensions of cultureChap1-624Cross-Cultural ManagementHofstedes Cultural DimensionsDutch researcher Geert Hofstede found there are four dimensions of culture.Hofstedes initial data: questionnaire surveys with over 116000 respondents from over 70 different countries who worked
20、 in the local subsidiaries of IBM.The fifth dimension was added later.Criticized because of its focus on just one company. Popular in the research field of cross-cultural management.25Cross-Cultural ManagementHofstedesFive CulturalDimensionsuuPower DistancePower DistanceuuUncertainty AvoidanceUncert
21、ainty AvoidanceuuIndividualismIndividualismuuMasculinityMasculinityuuLong-Term OrientationLong-Term Orientation26Cross-Cultural ManagementPower Distance: the extent to which less powerful members of organizations accept that power is distributed unequally.uLow: people treated as equals despite socia
22、l statusuHigh: people accept authority relationsUncertainty avoidance: the extent to which people feel threatened by ambiguous situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these.uLow: prefer few formal rulesuHigh: want clear behavioral guides27Cross-Cultural ManagementIndiv
23、idualism/collectivism: the tendency of people to look after themselves and their immediate family only (belong to groups or collectives and to look after each other in exchange for loyalty).uLow: group behavior importantuHigh: individual behavior important A bipolar continuumIndividualism Collectivi
24、sm Individualism Collectivism Individualism 28Cross-Cultural ManagementMasculinity/femininity: a situation in which the dominant values in society are success, money, and things (caring for others and the quality of life).uLow: cooperation; friendly atmosphere; employment security; low stress; warm
25、interpersonal relationships. uHigh: competition; challenge; recognition; wealth; advancement; high stress; tight control. A continuumFemininity Masculinity 29Cross-Cultural ManagementLongterm orientation: value placed on persistence, status, thriftuLow: respect for tradition, personal stability, foc
26、used on the pastuHigh: perseverance, thrift, focused on the futureThis dimension was added to depict the influence of Confucianism in Asia. This dimension is similar to “Adjusting” proposed by Brugha and Du.30Examples of Cultural DimensionsCountryCountryPower Power DistanceDistanceIndividualism*Indi
27、vidualism*Masculinity*Masculinity*Uncertainty Uncertainty AvoidanceAvoidanceLong-term Long-term Orientation*Orientation*ChinaChinaHighHighLowLowModerateModerateModerateModerateHighHighFranceFranceHighHighHighHighModerateModerateHighHighLowLowGermanyGermanyLowLowHighHighHighHighModerateModerateModera
28、teModerateHong KongHong KongHighHighLowLowHighHighLowLowHighHighIndonesiaIndonesiaHighHighLowLowModerateModerateLowLowLowLowJapanJapanModerateModerateModerateModerateHighHighModerateModerateModerateModerateNetherlandsNetherlandsLowLowHighHighLowLowModerateModerateModerateModerateRussiaRussiaHighHigh
29、ModerateModerateLowLowHighHighLowLowUnited StatesUnited StatesLowLowHighHighHighHighLowLowLowLowWest AfricaWest AfricaHighHighLowLowModerateModerateModerateModerateLowLow* A low score is synonymous with collectivism* A low score is synonymous with masculinity* A low score is synonymous with a short-
30、term orientationCross-Cultural ManagementAdditional FrameworksTwo additional perspectives, of social/cross-cultural psychologists merit attention:Markus & Kitayama: Independent & Interdependent ConstrualsTriandis: Individualism-Collectivism32Cross-Cultural ManagementVertical & Horizontal Individuali
31、sm & CollectivismHarry Triandis: Combination of Individualism vs. collectivism and power & achievement vs. benevolence & universalismVI: achievement + individualism (USA)HI: universalism + individualism (Sweden)VC: power + collectivism (India)HC: benevolence + collectivism (Israel; rare)33Cross-Cult
32、ural ManagementSchwartzs ValuesUniversalismBenevolenceConformity & traditionSecurityPowerAchievementHedonismStimulationSelf Direction34Cross-Cultural ManagementSchwartzs Value Map35Cross-Cultural ManagementEmpirical test of the Theory75,000 + respondents, varied samples in 68 countries Instrument li
33、sts 57 abstract value items “How important is each item as a guiding principle in your life?”36Cross-Cultural ManagementTasks in the next session:uStudents talks and presentationsuDiscussion in groups: how to learn Cross-cultural management?Assignment after class: Read a paper on Hofstedes cultural
34、dimensions.37Cross-Cultural ManagementPreviewIntegrating Hofstedes cultural dimensionsAttitudinal dimensions of cultureTrompenaarss cultural dimensionsIntegrating culture and management38Cross-Cultural ManagementChap1-7 Attitudinal Dimensions of Culture Work Value and Attitude SimilaritiesResearch h
35、as revealed many similarities in both work values and attitudesRonen and KrautSmallest space analysis (SSA) - maps the relationship among countries by showing the distance between each on various cultural dimensionsCan identify country clustersRonen and Shenkar Examined variables in four categoriesI
36、mportance of work goalsNeed deficiency, fulfillment, and job satisfactionManagerial and organizational variablesWork role and interpersonal orientation39Cross-Cultural ManagementA Synthesis of Country Cultures40Cross-Cultural ManagementGLOBE ProjectMulti-country study and evaluation of cultural attr
37、ibutes and leadership behaviorAre transformational characteristics of leadership universally endorsed?170 country co-investigators65 different cultures17,500 middle managers800 organisations41Cross-Cultural ManagementGLOBE ProjectWhat traits are universally viewed as impediments to leadership effect
38、iveness?Based on beliefs thatCertain attributes that distinguish one culture from others can be used to predict the most suitable, effective and acceptable organizational and leader practices within that cultureSocietal culture has direct impact on organizational cultureLeader acceptance stems from
39、tying leader attributes and behaviors to subordinate norms42VariableHighestMediumLowestRankingRankingRankingGLOBE Cultural Variable ResultsAssertivenessSpain, U.S.Egypt, IrelandSweden, New ZealandFuture orientationDenmark, Canada Slovenia, EgyptRussia, ArgentinaGender differentiationSouth Korea, Ita
40、ly, BrazilSweden Denmark EgyptUncertainty avoidanceAustria, Denmark Israel, U.S.Russia, HungaryPower distanceRussia, SpainEngland, FranceDemark, NetherlandsCollectivism/SocietalDenmark, Hong Kong, U.S. Greece, HungarySingaporeIn-group collectivismEgypt, ChinaEngland, FranceDenmark, NetherlandsPerfor
41、mance orientation U.S., TaiwanSweden, IsraelRussia, ArgentinaHumane orientationIndonesia, EgyptHong Kong, Germany, Spain SwedenCross-Cultural ManagementChap1-8 Trompenaars Cultural Dimensions Research produced five cultural dimensions that are based on relationship orientations and attitudes toward
42、both time and the environmentUniversalism vs. ParticularismUniversalism - belief that ideas and practices can be applied everywhere in the world without modificationFocus on formal rules and rely on business contactsParticularism - belief that circumstances dictate how ideas and practices should be
43、applied and something cannot be done the same everywhereFocus on relationships, working things out to suit the parties44Cross-Cultural ManagementTrompenaars Cultural Dimensions (cont.)Individualism vs. CommunitarianismIndividualism - people regard themselves as individualsRely on individuals to make
44、 decisionsCommunitarianism - people regard themselves as part of a groupSeek consultation and mutual consent before making decisionsNeutral vs. EmotionalNeutral - culture in which emotions are held in checkPeople try not to show their feelingsEmotional - culture in which emotions are expressed openl
45、y and naturallyPeople smile, talk loudly, greet each other with enthusiasm45Cross-Cultural ManagementSpecific vs. DiffuseSpecific - culture in which individuals have a large public space they readily share with others and a small private space they guard closely and share with only close friends and
46、 associatesPeople often are open and extroverted Work and private life are separateDiffuse - culture in which both public and private space are similar in size and individuals guard their public space carefully, because entry into public space affords entry into private space as wellPeople often app
47、ear indirect and introverted, and work and private life often are closely linkedTrompenaars Cultural Dimensions (cont.)46Cross-Cultural ManagementTrompenaars Cultural Dimensions (cont.)Achievement vs. AscriptionAchievement - culture in which people are accorded status based on how well they perform
48、their functionsAscription - culture in which status is attributed based on who or what a person isFor example, status may be accorded on the basis of age, gender, or social connectionsTimeSequential approach to time - people do one thing at a time, keep appointments strictly, follow plans to the let
49、terSynchronous approach - people do more than one thing at a time, appointments are approximate47Cross-Cultural ManagementTrompenaars Cultural Dimensions (cont.)EnvironmentInner-directedPeople believe in controlling environmental outcomesOuter-directedPeople believe in allowing things to take their
50、natural courseCultural Patterns or ClustersDefined groups of countries that are similar to each other in terms of the five dimensions and the orientations toward time and the environment48Cross-Cultural ManagementTrompenaars Cultural GroupsAnglo clusterRelationship United States United KingdomIndivi
51、dualism x xCommunitarianism Specific relationship x xDiffuse relationship Universalism x xParticularism Neutral relationship xEmotional relationship xAchievement x xAscription49Cross-Cultural ManagementTrompenaars Cultural GroupsTrompenaars Cultural GroupsAsian clusterRelationship Japan China Indone
52、sia Hong Kong SingaporeIndividualismCommunitarianism x x x x xSpecific relationshipDiffuse relationship x x x x xUniversalismParticularism x x x x xNeutral relationship x x x xEmotional relationship xAchievementAscription x x x x x 50Cross-Cultural ManagementTrompenaars Cultural GroupsTrompenaars Cu
53、ltural GroupsLatin American clusterRelationship Argentina Mexico Venezuela BrazilIndividualism x x xCommunitarianismSpecific relationshipDiffuse relationship x x x xUniversalismParticularism x x x xNeutral relationship x x xEmotional relationship xAchievement x x Ascription x x 51Cross-Cultural Mana
54、gementTrompenaars Cultural GroupsLatin-European clusterRelationship France Belgium Spain ItalyIndividualism xCommunitarianism x x xSpecific relationship x xDiffuse relationship x xUniversalism x x xParticularism xNeutral relationship xEmotional relationship x x xAchievement xAscription x x x 52Cross
55、-Cultural ManagementTrompenaars Cultural GroupsTrompenaars Cultural GroupsGermanic clusterRelationship Austria Germany Switzerland CzechoslovakiaIndividualism xCommunitarianism x x xSpecific relationship x x x Diffuse relationship xUniversalism x x x xParticularism Neutral relationship x xEmotional
56、relationship x x Achievement x x xAscription x 53Cross-Cultural ManagementCulture Maps - FrameworksCulture Maps - FrameworksEdward T. HallGeert HofstedeKluckhohn & Strodbeck time space things friendships agreements&interpersonalbehavior power risk individualism masculinity long term orientation&mana
57、gementtheories - practice relation to nature orientation to time belief about human nature mode of human activity relationships space&Intl. business practiceValue PatternsVariations in Value OrientationsCulture ElementsTrompenaars universalism particularism collectivism individualism affectiveneutral relationships specificitydiffuseness achievement ascription time orientationInternalexternal control&Intl. business practiceValue Patterns54
