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1、1. WhydoesmodernlinguisticsregardthespokenformofIanguageasprimary,notthewritten?First,thespokenformispriortothewrit-tenformandmostwritingsystemsarederivedfromthespokenformofIanguage.Second,thespokenformplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyedanditservesawiderrangeofpurpose
2、sFinally,thespokenformisthemediumthroughwhichweacquireourmothertongue.66.WhatarethemajordistinctionsbetweenIangueandparole?ThedistinctionbetweenIangue,andparolewasmadebythefamouslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommuni
3、ty,andparolereferstotherealizationofIangueinactualuse.LangueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichIanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnottheIanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringIan
4、guageevents.Langueisrelativelystable;itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.2. Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?Howdotheydiffer?Oneoftheoldestwasthenamingtheory,proposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato,whobelievedthatthewordsusedinaIangu
5、agearetakentobela-belsoftheobjectstheystandfor.Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalin-guisticformandwhatitrefersto.Theformandthemeaningarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.Contextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontex
6、ts.Twokindsofcontextarerecognized;thesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontext.Forexample,themeaningofthewordsealinthesentenceThesealcouldnotbefoundcanonlybedeterminedac-cordingtothecontextinwhichthesentenceoccurs:Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thezookeeperbecameworried.(sealmeaninganaquaticmammal)Thesealco
7、uldnotbefound.Thekingbecameworried.(sealmeaningthekingsstamp)Behaviorismdrewonbehavioristpsychologywhenhetriedtodefinethemeaningoflinguisticforms.Behavioristsattemptedtode-finethemeaningofalanguageformasthesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.3.Discusswithexampless
8、omeofthelinguisticdifferencesbetweenStandardEnglishandBlackEnglish.OneofthemostprominentphonologicalcharacteristicsofBlackEnglishisthefrequentsimplificationofconsonantclustersattheendofwordswhenoneofthetwoconsonantsisanalveolar/t/,/d/,/s/,or/z/.Theapplicationofthissimplificationrulemaydeletethepast?
9、tensemorpheme,sopastandpassedarebothpronouncedlikepass.AnothersalientcharacteristicofBlackEnglishphonologicalsystemcon-cemsthedeletionofsomeword-finalstopconsonantsinwordslikesideandborrowed.SpeakersofBlackEnglishfrequentlydeletetheseword-fi-nalstops,pronouncingsidelikesighand“botrowed”like“botrow.O
10、neprominentsyntacticfeatureisthefrequentabsenceofvariousformsofthecopulabeinBlackEnglish,whicharerequiredofStandardEng-lish.ComparethefollowingexpressionsinBlackEnglishandStandardEng-lish:(1)BlackEnglishStandardEnglishTheymine.They*remine.Youcrazy.Yourecrazy.AnotherdistinctivesyntacticfeatureofBlack
11、EnglishisthesystematicuseofdieexpressionitiswhereStandardEnglishusesthereisinthesenseofthereexists:IsitaMr.Johnsoninthisoffice?AnotheraspectofBlackEnglishistheuseofdoublenegationconstructions.Whenevertheverbisnegated,theindefinitepronounssomething,some-body,andsomebecomethenegativeindefinitesnothing
12、,nobody,andnone,forexample:Hedontknownothing.(Hedoesntknowanything.)4.Howdoesasentencemeaningdifferfromanutterancemeaning?Asentencemeaningisof-tenconsideredastheintrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.Itisabstractandindependentofcontext.Themeaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-
13、dependent.Theutterancemeaningisbasedonsentencemeaning;itisrealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.Forexample,Thereisadogatthedoorr”.Thecouldutteritasamatter-of-factstate-ment,tellingthehearerthatthedogisatthedoor.Thespeakercoulduseitasawarning,askingthehearernottoapproachthedoor.Thereareotherpossibilities,too.So,theunderstandingoftheutterancemeaningofThereisadogatthedoordependsonthecontextinwhichitisutteredandthepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersit.
