1/ What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？ Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 2/ The scope of linguisticsphonology：音韵学, 语言学 一门研究各种语言内部语音模式的学科历时音系学(历史音系学)考查和分析语音声音体系在一段时间内的变化，如英语sea(海)和see(看见)这两个词中的元音曾一度发音不同，而演变至今则发同样的音共时音系学(描写音系学)研究一种语言在其发展的某一个别阶段的语音，揭示它可能存在的语音模式(如英语里nt和rk这两组音只能出现在词的中间和词尾，而不能出现在词首)phonetics：语音学, 发音学 研究言语的声音学科语音学研究它们的发音(发音语音学)、声学性质(声学语音学)，以及如何组合起来构成音节、词语和句子(语言语音学)最早的语音学家为印度学者(约公元前300)，他们试图保存梵文经文的发音。
古代的希腊人被证明是首次以语音字母作为书写系统的人现代语音学的创立者为A.M.贝尔(1819～1905)，其《语音图解法 》(1867)研发一套书写语音的精确符号体系20世纪时，语言学家专注于开发一种分类系统，可以用来比较所有的人类语音现代语音学关注的另一个方面是语音感知的心理过程morphology（形态学）是对单词的结构的分析，一般认为是syntax的最小单位morphology is the identification, analysis and description of structure of words ， and words are generally accepted as being (with clitics) the smallest units of syntax.syntax(句法学)指的是对构造句子时应该遵循的原则狭义上就是语法）syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages语义学又称作词义学（Semantics，来自于希腊语 semantikos），对中文等方块文字而言，则称为字义学。
研究对象是词语，是词汇学的一个分支主要研究词义词和词之间的各种关系是语义学研究的一个主要方面，例如同义词、反义词，同音词等，找出词语之间的细微差别，让人们更准确地使用词语3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics3.1 Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue. 3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).4.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.II. Phonetics(语音学）1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调） in the process.Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节） by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经） and the brain.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学） we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送） between mouth and ear.2. The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官） the producer of voice（声音发生器官） and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）3. Consonants(辅音）Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇） Labiodentals,（唇齿） dental,（齿） alveolar,（齿龈） retroflex,（卷舌） palate-alveolar,（上齿龈） palatal,（上颚） velar,（软腭） uvular,（小舌） glottal(声门）Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破） nasal,（鼻音） trill,（颤音） lateral,（边音） fricative,（摩擦） approximant,（近似音） affricate（破擦）4. Vowels (元音）The classification of vowels: the height of tong。