Contrastive Rhetoric ： cross-cultural aspects of second-language writing 对比修辞 第二语言写作的跨文化层面,,Contrastive Rhetoric,Chapter 4 Contrastive rhetoric and the field of rhetoric and Composition,,1. Contrastive rhetoric is the study of how a person's first language and culture influence his or her writing in a second language. 对比修辞学主要研究第二语言学习过程中母语修辞方式对第二语言写作的影响. 作为应用语言学的组成部分，它在发展过程中受到各个学科的影响，包括应用语言学理论、修辞学与写作理论、篇章语言学、文学批评、翻译学、心理语言学等其中影响较大的是修辞学、写作理论和篇章语言学2. Rhetoric is the art of discourse, an art that aims to improve the capability of writers or speakers that attempt to inform, persuade, or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. 3. A composition is a piece of written work that students write at school.,Contrastive Rhetoric,Key points: In addition to discussing reasons for the importance of writing at the college level in the United States, this chapter describes four major approaches in the teaching of writing: approaches based on rhetoric theories, the expressionist approach, the cognitive approach, and the social constructivist approach.,,1966年，R．Kaplan发表了《跨文化教育的文化思维模式》这一奠基性文章，率先对第一语言的思维模式和语篇结构在第二语言中的表现进行研究。
经过对近六百篇不同文化背景的学生撰写的英语作文进行对比研究，发现不同文化背景的学生在英语写作中使用了不同的修辞模式，并归纳为:英语的直线式模式，闪族语的平行式模式，东方语言的螺旋式模式，闪族语的平行式模式和俄语的偏离式模式所谓直线式是说段落发展呈主题一例证一结尾直线性展开，其它旁枝末节不包括在内，一般主要有归纳和演绎两种结构螺旋式是指作者不直接进人主题，而是在主题外围迁回阐述Contrastive Rhetoric,,,,,Contrastive Rhetoric,,1．1修辞学与写作理论 修辞学研究如何使语言表达最富有效果，因此它是对比 修辞研究中最基础的理论组成部分就其渊源来说，西方修 辞学首先是一种劝说性演说艺术亚里士多德将所有的演 说分为引言、问题的提出、论证说明和结尾四个部分，这为英 语作文篇章组织理论的形成奠定了基础在他之后的一千 多年里，修辞学家们对修辞的研究一直局限于演说，直到19 世纪Edward Channing才在哈佛大学的修辞教学中逐渐将修 辞研究的重点从演说转向作文修辞学在19世纪的发展是 段落概念的产生Alexander Bain在《英文作文和修辞》中认 为，段落的统一性是书面话语的一个重要特征；同时他把话 语分为描写文、叙述文、说明文和劝说文。
他认为，觅材取材和构思布局在一定程度上是由话语形成的性质决定的这 些观点通过美国的Adams Sherman，Berret Wendle等人的传播，成为美国学校英语作文理论的权威部分19世纪末美国大学的修辞学课已成了一年级新生的英语写作课，重点在于培养学生使用语法和用法、衔接段落及选用话语形式的技能但是用这种修辞学方法教授写作在20世纪30年代后有所中断，直到五、六十年代，修辞学的历史和理论重新激起人们的兴趣，出现了许多修辞学论著，如Edward Corbett《古典修辞学今用》，James Kinneaw的《话语理论》韦佛和麦基翁(R．Meckeon)将传统的修辞课程应用到作文上，认为修辞学是作文教学法和研究法的真正基础20世纪五、六十年代美国出现了“新修辞学”这一学说运用了心理学、语文学、动机研究及其他行为主义科学的 研究成 I．A．Richards在其《修辞哲学》中强调古典修辞的局限性，认为“旧”修辞学与“新”修辞学的区别在于：“旧” 修辞学是“劝说”，其重点在于有意识的目的；而“新”修辞学是“同～”，当人们使用符号在其他人身上引诱合作时，他们必须把自己与听众“同一”起来Toulmin则进一步将议论文的修辞模式分为“论点”(daim)，“论据”(data)，及“证明” (warrant)一=部分。
这一模式多年来一直被用在英语写作教学中，许多写作教材都以此为理论基础Perelman和01．brechts-Tyteca的最大贡献则是强调听众(读者)的重要性，认为辩论的策略由听众(读者)的类型决定，一般听众(读者)为般听众(读者)为客观公正的辩论提供了标准建立在古典修辞学和新修辞学基础上的写作理论对对比修辞学具有重要意义它为后者提供了议论文等篇章类型的写作模式及分析基础 根据Connor(1996)观点，修辞学对对比修辞的影响主要表现在两个方面： (1)Bain,Kinneavy等人对写作目的及语体形式的区分促使对比修辞研究者们重新评价跨文化对比中的篇章类型早期的对比修辞学侧重于说明文的对比分析，后来渐渐扩展到记叙文和议论文的对比研究 (2)对比修辞学研究者们越来越重视读者在跨文化对比中的多种作用，他们已开始着手对不同文化中的一般读者进行研究，例如Hinds对不同文化中的读者责任型和作者责任型文章进行分析，为对比修辞研究开辟了新领域Historians of composition theory and practice (e.g., Berlin 1987; North 1987) note that the rise of interest in the formal teaching of writing in the United States can be traced back to 1873, when Harvard University first added an English composition requirement to its list of admission standards. Beginning in the 1960s,the study of student composing and of written products became a respectable object of academic inquiry. Faculty involved in the research and teaching of writing have gained legitimacy in English departments.,,Rhetorician James Berlin provides a comprehensive history of the composition field in his two-volume work, Writing Instruction in Nineteenth-Century American College(1984) and Rhetoric and Reality: Writing Instruction in American College,1900-1985(1987). In discussing the recent rise of composition as a legitimate area of teaching and research, he mentions two important influences: the increases emphasis on communication during the decades of 1940-1960, and the importance of educational reforms in the 1950s and 1960s.,,,The 1940s saw a mushroom of general education courses with emphasis on communication skills leading to the establishment of communication courses designed to provide “a sense of cultural inheritance and citizenship”. Courses emphasized writing, reading, and speaking skills as well as subject matter.,Such courses were precursors of a required course, focused solely on composition, which was instituted a couple of decades later.,,In the 1950s and 1960s, Berlin observes, educational reforms in the United States came about as a result of the reaction of the U.S. government to the threat from the Soviets’ launching of the Sputnik satellite. Increased numbers of young people went to college, and writing became a required subject at most college.,,,Today, colleges test students’ writing skills upon entrance; √ pass × pass to a remedial writing class to prepare them for a “freshman English writing” class. directly to freshman English writing.,focus exclusively on composing and other writing skills rather than on the study of literature or the English language.,,Rhetoric 1) Berlin describes that the renaissance of composition since the 1960s produced many competing “rhet。