《外A1014 17号、24号作业》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《外A1014 17号、24号作业（17页珍藏版）》请在金锄头文库上搜索。
1、Page 1 1. Classical rhetoric 2. Rhetoric in the Middle Ages 3. Rhetoric in the Renaissance 4. New Classic Rhetoric 5. Contemporary RhetoricContents of Chapter 2Page 21. Classical rhetoric (5th B.C 5th A.D.)In the ancient times, rhetoric evolved as an important art, one that provided the orator with
2、the forms, means, and strategies for persuading an audience of the correctness of the orators arguments. Rhetoric originates from the ancient Greece. It provides two necessary conditions for the classical rhetoric.1.1 Necessary conditions of classical rhetoric(1) Greek Democracy : Democracy provides
3、 a necessary condition for the birth of classical rhetoric. The ancient Greeks(mainly the Athenians) were a unique people. They believed that individuals should be free as long as they acted within the laws of Greece. This allowed them the opportunity to excel any direction they chose. Individuality
4、 was the basis of their society. The ability to strive for excellence was what Athenians dearly believed in. (2) Great thinkers/ scholars: There are a lot of great thinkers/ scholars in the ancient Greece, such as Socrates(苏格拉底), Plato(柏拉图), and Aristotle(亚里士多德). Their great Words and thoughts are s
5、till taught in universities to this day. Most of them are great rhetoricians. Page 31.2 The social and political organizations of Ancient Greece:(1) Polis or City-state: In 508 B.C., the city of Athens became one of the first polis, or one of the first city-states in ancient times. (2) Democracy and
6、 Council: In 508 B.C., Cleisthenes (克利斯提尼，他将索伦的立法改革制定成法律文件，通 常被认为是雅典民主政治的创建者) instituted a new political organization whereby the citizens would take a more careful and more direct role in running the city-state. He called this new political organization “demokratia”, or democracy-rule by the entire
7、 body of citizens. He created a Council of Five Hundred which planned the business of the public assemblies.It was the Council that provided people a place of public speaking. Page 41.3 Sophists and their practices of rhetoricOut of growing demand for education in the 5th century B.B., Greece called
8、 into existence a class of teachers known as sophists. Sophist were a professional class rather than a school, and as such they were scattered over Greece and exhibited professional rivalries.The sophists undertook to provide a stock of arguments on any subject, or to prove any position. They boaste
9、d of their ability to make the worse appear the better reason, to prove that black is white. One representative of them was Gorgias.“Man is the measure of all things.”人类是衡量所有事物的标准。Page 5Plato maintained that rhetoric was the expression of truth and the art of rational discourse rather than the art o
10、f eloquent expression. He argued that clarity, consistency and naturalness were the only features necessary for the effective presentation of ideas. He asserted that genuine eloquence derived its force from truth and spontaneity. This, in part, was a reaction to the use of rhetorical artifice by the
11、 Sophists as a means of deceiving and manipulating people.(2) Plato and his theory about rhetoricPage 6Aristotle, Platos student (384-322 BC) famously set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that still repays careful study today. In the first sentence of The Art of Rhetoric, Aristotle says that “
12、rhetoric” is the counterpart of dialectic. He means that rhetoric has a domain or scope of application that is parallel to but different from the domain or scope of application of dialectic. Rhetoric is used in place of dialectic when we are discussing civic issues in a court of law or in a legislat
13、ive assembly. The domain of rhetoric is civic affairs and practical decision making in civic affairs, not theoretical considerations of operational definitions of terms and clarification of thought these, for him, are in the domain of dialectic. (3). Aristotle (亚里士多德) and his theory about rhetoricAr
14、istotle heavily emphasizes the three basic elements in rhetoric: logos(逻辑), pathos(情感) and ethos(人格).Page 8(3). Aristotle (亚里士多德) and his theory about rhetoricIn his Rhetoric, Aristotle classified oratory雄辩 演说 into three categories: political(议政演说), forensic(法学演说) and ceremonial(宣德演说). Political ora
15、tory urges the audience to do or not to do something; forensic oratory attacks or defends somebody; the ceremonial oratory praises or census somebody.1.5 Some Roman rhetoricians and their theory (1) Cicero and his theory (2) Quintilian and his theoryPage 10Summary of the Classical Rhetoric (1) Class
16、ical rhetoric is the theoretical source of the Western rhetoric. It exerts great influence over the development of rhetoric in all later historical periods. Some scholars comment that the early rhetoric in European countries after classical times contain few original ideas, they were merely reproduction of classical rhetoric. (2) the most influential rhetoricians of classical times are Aristotle, Cicero and Quintilian. Page 112. Rheto
