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1、翻译的语言学派,代表人物： 卡特福德(John Cunnison Catford) 彼得纽马克(Peter Newmark) 奈达(Eugene Albert Nida),Suggested Readings 自20世纪60年代以来有代表性、有影响的当代西方翻译理论流派的论文或理论著作。 1.语言学派（Liguistic）： 奈达（Nida）的动态对等翻译理论 纽马克（Newmark）的语义翻译与交际翻译 纽伯特（Neubert）的语篇翻译 2.功能学派(Functionalist）： 弗米尔（Vermeer）的翻译目的论 诺德（Nord）的功能加忠诚翻译观,3.描写学派(Dscriptive
2、)： 佐哈尔（Even-Zohar）的多元系统论 图里（Toury）的描写翻译研究 勒菲弗尔（Lefevere）的翻译改写理论 4.文化学派(Cutural Studies)： 韦努蒂（Venuti）异化翻译策略 弗罗托（Flotow）的女性主义翻译研究 罗宾逊（Robinson）的后殖民翻译研究,5.翻译的哲学取向派 (Philosophical)： 斯坦纳（Steiner）的翻译阐释观 德里达（Dedrria）解构主义翻译观 6.认知学派(Cognitive)： 格特（Gutt）的关联翻译理论 7.翻译实证研究(Empirical Research in Translation Studi
3、es)： 贝克（Baker）的语料库翻译研究 劳舍（Loescher）有声思维翻译过程研究,奈达(1914-2011)的翻译理论,Toward a Science of Translating (1964) The Theory and Practice of Translation (1969) From one Language to Another (1986) Language and Culture- Contexts in Translating (2001),奈达是一位语言共性论者，他认为，能用一种语言表达的东西一定能用另一种语言来表达，一个民族使用的“落后”的语言结构并不会“限
4、制”它对世界的认识能力，而不同语言和文化之间能通过寻找翻译对等语，以恰当方式重新组织信息的形式和语义结构而进行交际。 奈达的翻译思想：翻译是交际活动；翻译主要是意译；为了意译必须改变语言形式。,两种语言之间没有绝对的对应； 没有完全准确的翻译。 翻译种类多样，其决定因素是： (1) the nature of the message, (2) the purpose or purposes of the author and, by proxy, of the translator, and (3) the type of audience.,功能对等,从一种语言到另一种语言：论圣经翻译中的功
5、能对等（From One Language to Another,1986）语言、文化和翻译（Language , Culture and Translating, 1993）和语言和文化翻译中的语境（Language and Culture- Contexts in Translating, 2001） “信息”不仅包括思想内容，也包括语言形式。形式也表达意义，改变形式也就改变了意义。 改变形式的5个条件：1. 直译会导致意义上的错误；2. 引入外来语形成语义空白，读者有可能自己填入错误的意义；3. 形式对应会引起严重的意义不明；4. 形式对应引起作者原意所没有的歧义；5. 形式对应会引起译
6、文语法错误，语体不合。,功能对等的基本点就是“将原语文本读者的理解和欣赏的方式与译语文本接受者的理解和欣赏的方式加以比较”。 1. 如果紧扣原文形式的翻译可能引起对所指意义的误解，就必然在译语文本中作某些改变，或者字面翻译可以保留，但必须增加脚注，说明可能引起的误解； 2. 如果紧扣原文形式讲不通，即所指意义完全模糊不清，就可以在文本中作些改变，除非原语文本的目的就在于模糊不清，在这种情况下，所指意义的模糊不清可以保留，但用脚注说明这种模糊不清的性质是有用的，而且在大多数实例中也证明是恰当的；,3. 如果紧扣原文形式的译文在语义上和句法上非常困难，有关的一般水平的读者有可能放弃对这种困难设法加
7、以理解，那就必须对译文作某些改变并在导言或者脚注中表明那些改变的性质； 4. 如果紧扣原文形式的翻译有可能引起原语文本联想意义的严重误解或者在原语文本风格值的恰当欣赏上造成重大的损失，那么，就应当作些反映原文本联想意义所必需的调整；,5. 译文被用的方式（如供阅读的戏剧和在舞台上演出的戏剧）对于将要进行的调整程度有很大的影响； 6. 一种必须同伴随信码（accompanying code）一道翻译的文本（比如歌曲和歌剧），通常需要在所有层面上进行许多调整：音韵学、词汇、句法和话语。,Functional equivalence,Implies different degree of adequ
8、acy from minimal to maximal effectiveness on the basis of both cognitive and experiential factors. A minimal level of (realistic) functional equivalence: the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must
9、have understood and appreciated it.,A maximal, ideal functional equivalence: the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did. The maximal level of equivalence is rarely, if ever, achieved, except for texts hav
10、ing little or no aesthetic value and involving only routine information.,Principles for producing functional equivalence,1. If a close, formal translation is likely to result in a misunderstanding of the designative meaning, the literal translation may be retained and a footnote explaining the likel
11、y misunderstanding must be added.,2. If a close, formal translation makes no sense, certain changes may be introduced into the text unless the source text is purposely obscure, in which case the obscurity may be retained, and a footnote explaining the nature of the obscurity may be very useful and i
12、n most instances fully justified. 3. If a close, formal translation is so semantically and syntactically difficult that the average person for whom the translation being made is very likely to give up trying to understand it, certain changes are warranted.,4. If a close, formal translation is likely
13、 to result in serious misunderstanding or the associative meanings of the source text or in a significant loss in a proper appreciation for the stylistic values of the source text, adjustments are necessary. 5. The manner in which a translation is to be used has a significant influence upon the exte
14、nt to which adjustments are to be made.,6. The fact that a source text must be translated in such a way as to occur with accompanying codes usually requires a number of adjustments on all levels: phonology, lexicon, syntax, and discourse.(Language and Culture: Contexts in Translating),An elegant han
15、dwriting, like the elegant hand that wrote it. I pushed it to one side and had another drink, I began to feel a little less savage. I pushed things around the desk. My hands felt thick and hot and awkward. I ran a finger across the corner of the desk and looked at the streak made by the wiping off of the dust. I looked at the dust on my finger and wiped that off. I looked at my watch. I looked at the wall. I looked at nothing.,
