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1、Lecture 7 Argumentation Concept and Basic Structure 议论文的概念议论文的概念 议论文就是运用一定的材料，通过一定的论证方法来表明自己的立场、观点和态度的文章。议论文与说明文密切相关。二者的相似之处相似之处在于：都有说理成分，都是解释某个事实或某个思想的文体。 区别区别：说明文是客观的解释说明某一事物、观点等。而议论文则通过作者主观上的说理和论证来影响读者的思想和行动。 议论文要有三部分构成: 论点、论据和论证论点、论据和论证。 议论文的标题议论文的标题 议论文的标题必须反映出议论的主题或作者的论点。所以，议论文的标题必须反映出议论的主题或作者
2、的论点。所以，常用以下几种形式的标题：常用以下几种形式的标题：1）疑问句：这类标题本身就体现了争论的焦点。例如：）疑问句：这类标题本身就体现了争论的焦点。例如：Who Influence Young Children Most? Is a Test of Spoken English Necessary? Can Money Buy Happiness?2）陈述句：这类标题本身就是议论文的论点。例如：）陈述句：这类标题本身就是议论文的论点。例如：Parents Are Spoiling Their Children, Rock Music Is Rotting Our Kids Mind等。等
3、。3）名词短语：这类标题没体现出论点，而是只提供了引论的）名词短语：这类标题没体现出论点，而是只提供了引论的主题。例如：主题。例如：Computer Games, Positive and Negative Aspects of Sports, My View on the Negative Effects of Some Advertisements等。等。4）介词短语：这类标题通常由介词）介词短语：这类标题通常由介词on, toward等引出议论的等引出议论的话题。例如：话题。例如：On Reading, Toward a Good Teacher-Student Relationship
4、等。等。 议论文的要素之一议论文的要素之一 论点论点 任何一篇议论文必须有论点。议论文的论点是指作者在文章中所表明的主张、见解或观点，它是议论文的核心内容，是议论文的纲。议论文对论点的要求是：正确、鲜明、新颖。议论文的论点通常用I believe, as far as Im concerned, in my opinion, to my mind, however, yet, unfortunately等词语引出。有时，作者不使用这些词语，而是直接表达自己的观点。1）议论文的论点必须是可争辩的。）议论文的论点必须是可争辩的。 例如，I dont think euthanasia is huma
5、ne和I believe that issuing lottery tickets is a good way to collect funds for social welfare projects都是可争议的论点。相反，事实、个人偏爱、或已被科学证实为人们普遍接受的观点通常都是不可争辩的，因此不是好的论点。例如，language is a tool for communication, my favorite food is fish, pollution is harmful to peoples health都不适合做论点。请看以下分析：请看以下分析： a. I think, in C
6、hina, the examination score is regarded as important in making a decision.b. In my opinion, it is not easy to achieve success. c. To my mind, taxis have become an important transportation means. d. I think cooperation is very important in our work.e. I believe we should have more fast food restauran
7、ts in big cities.2）论点必须鲜明，不能含含糊糊）论点必须鲜明，不能含含糊糊 在开始学习议论文写作时，最好把论点放在开头，因为这样做能达到开宗明义、开门见山的效果，也为后面的论述创造条件。尤其是在考试中，一篇议论文的字数不多，应尽快地摆出论点，使文章中心明确，更应该把论点置于文章的开头。议论文开头的写法也不是千篇一律。以下是常用的几种方法：开门见山：文章一开始就提出作者的观点。比如，在写一篇题为Why Do We Study English?的议论文时，可以直接开门见山：We study English to communicate with more people, not
8、just to pass the various English tests.设问作答：这种方法是先提出一个问题，让人思索，不等找到答案，论点自然道出。同样是以上题目，也可以这样引出论点：Why do we study English? Do we study English to pass the tests? Do we study English because we like it? After reflecting on these questions, I have realized that we study English for several reasons.引用入题：先引
9、述名言或当事人的话语，再联系自己做一番发挥，提出论点。以上题目，也可以这样引出论点：Many years ago, English writer Rudyard Kipling said, “East is East, and West is West and never the twain shall meet.” But truth is, nowadays Easterners and Westerners meet quite often 议论文的要素之二议论文的要素之二 论据论据 论据是论证过程必备的手段。没有论据的论证论据是论证过程必备的手段。没有论据的论证空洞无物，形似枯槁。论据
10、的来源有：事实依空洞无物，形似枯槁。论据的来源有：事实依据（例证法）、数据显示、名言警句、格言、据（例证法）、数据显示、名言警句、格言、科学理论、专家见解等。科学理论、专家见解等。 议论文的要素之三议论文的要素之三 论证论证 通过一定的逻辑思维能力和语言表达能力，将论据组通过一定的逻辑思维能力和语言表达能力，将论据组织起来，达到证明观点的效果。论证过程应做到：有织起来，达到证明观点的效果。论证过程应做到：有理有据，逻辑清晰，层次分明，观点明确。论证方法理有据，逻辑清晰，层次分明，观点明确。论证方法有：有：（1）归纳法：从个别到一般。通过考察一类事物中某）归纳法：从个别到一般。通过考察一类事物中
11、某些对象或全部对象具有的特性，推断出该类事物都有些对象或全部对象具有的特性，推断出该类事物都有这一属性。这一属性。（2）演绎法：与归纳法相反，是由一般到个别。是从）演绎法：与归纳法相反，是由一般到个别。是从既有的普遍性结论或一般性事理，推导出个别性结论既有的普遍性结论或一般性事理，推导出个别性结论的一种方法。的一种方法。（3）驳论法：首先给出一个谬误的观点，然后加以批）驳论法：首先给出一个谬误的观点，然后加以批驳，最后确立自己的观点。驳，最后确立自己的观点。 议论文的四大类型议论文的四大类型 根据论述的方法和角度，议论文大致可根据论述的方法和角度，议论文大致可分为四种类型：分为四种类型：对立观
12、点型、问题解决对立观点型、问题解决型、说明利弊型和阐述主题型型、说明利弊型和阐述主题型。1）观点对立型议论文）观点对立型议论文基本步骤：引出话题摆出观点我的观点。还可细分为：1.1 引出话题摆出一种观点表明我与之相对的另一种观点1.2 引出话题分别提出两种观点表明我同意其中一种观点并说明1.3 引出话题分别提出了两种观点表明任何一种观点我都不同意并提出自己的观点. 注意：倘若选择上面1.1或1.3的模式，那么可以在第二部分里留有足够的“谬论”空间， 以便自己在后面加以反驳并建立自己的观点。若选择1.2模式，注意在第二部分写到自己同意的一方的观点时不要着墨太多，而应当把充分的文字语言流到第三部分
13、加强自己的论证。以避免论据的重复。采用句型：引出话题引出话题引出话题引出话题 1) has become a hot topic among people recently. Opinions vary from person to person. 2) Nowadays, people are divided on the question as to whether3) Different people have different views on4) The issue of whether or not has been widely argued currently.摆出观点摆出观
14、点摆出观点摆出观点 1) Some people suggest/hold the opinion that However/while other people hold a different point of view.2) When it comes to, some people think/believe that However/while others claim that the opposite/reverse is true.3) Nowadays, an overwhelming majority of people think that Nevertheless, t
15、here are still some people hold the opinion that我的观点我的观点我的观点我的观点1) As far as I am concerned, I would like to agree to the former to some extent.2)As to me/For my part, I would like to agree to the former to some extent.3)In my opinion, both sides are partly like. When we, we should take into conside
16、ration all aspects of the problems and then make the right decision. 真题演练（00年6月）Is a Test of Spoken English Necessary? 1、很多人认为有必要举行英语口语考试，理由是，2、也有人持不同意见,3、我的看法和打算Positive:basic part of the languageassess ones abilityimprove students oral EnglishChinas entry into WTONegative:add students study loadwr
17、itten English is enoughunnecessary if not work in foreign enterprisesinvolves a lot of subjective elements2）问题解决型议论文）问题解决型议论文v问题解决型议论文是遵循：提出问题分析问题解决问题的基本步骤进行的。审题时要弄清什么样的现象，第二部分要给出具体原因，第三部分给出相应对策。为了使文章有序，最好用firstly, secondly, finally etc.的过渡词。采用句型：描述问题描述问题描述问题描述问题 1) Althoughhas brought convenience t
18、o us, many people have begun to realize that it is the source of trouble as well. 2) In recent years, many cities/nations/people have been faced/troubled with the serious problem of3) With the increasingly rapid economic globalization and urbanization, more problems are brought to our attention.4) T
19、hanks to Chinas reform and opening-up policy, the past two decades have witnessed great economic development and social transformation.5)With the rapid development/improvement of economy, great changes have taken place in6)There is no denying the fact that has become the most concern among people no
20、wadays.7) Recently the problem /phenomenon/issue of was brought into focus/ has become a heated topic/has aroused great concern among. 分析问题分析问题分析问题分析问题 1) What has possibly led/contributed to this problem? In the first place,.2) Perhaps the most important/main reason is.3) It is no easy job to ident
21、ify the reason for, which involves several complicated factors. For some, For others,解决问题解决问题解决问题解决问题1) The first key factor to solve this problemAnother key factor is2) People have found many solution/approaches to dealing with this problem.3) Then how should we solve this problem? Here are some su
22、ggestion which may be some of help.4) Faced withwe should take a series of effective measures to cope with the situation.5) It is high time Here are a few examples that might be taken immediately.6) We need it take a fresh look at this matter/situation in a new perspective. Otherwise, we wont come a
23、nywhere near solving it.7) It is essential/indispensable/that proper action/effective measures should be taken to reverse this situation/trend.真题演练 (04年1月)Reduce Waste on Campus 1目前有些校园内浪费现象严重： 2浪费的危害： 3从我做起，杜绝浪费。 Waste on campus:buy much more food water dripping dump the leftover blank paperBad eff
24、ect:energy crises water shortageReduce waste:a good virtue to avoid waste thrifty people are respected3）说明利弊型议论文）说明利弊型议论文v这种是针对某一事物或现象从正反两方面分析他的优缺点，然后表明自己的看法，此类作文一般可以写成“三段式”或“四段式”的文章。具体写作步骤：描述现象描述现象表明其优点表明其优点说明其缺点说明其缺点我的我的看法或观点。看法或观点。采用句型：描述现象描述现象描述现象描述现象 (同上） 表明优点表明优点表明优点表明优点 1) There are several a
25、dvantages in/ of The biggest advantage is that Moreover, Finally,2) has a positive impact/effect on peoples lives.3) is playing an increasingly important role in peoples lives.4) Those who in favor of claim that it has a lot of advantages. For one thing, For another说明缺点说明缺点说明缺点说明缺点 1) However, just
26、like anything else, has its negative side as well.2) Of course, the disadvantages can not be ignored.3) However, just as everything has two sides, also has many disadvantages.4) However, the negative aspects are also obvious/evident. To begin with, To make matters worse, Worst of all, 我的看法我的看法我的看法我的
27、看法 1) As to me, I think the advantages carry more weight than the disadvantages.2) Anyway, I still believehas more advantages than disadvantages.3) But for me, I think what is more important is its positive side. 真题演练 Advantages and Disadvantages of Electronic Dictionary 1目前越来越多的学生开始使用电子字典 2电子辞典的优点
28、3电子辞典的缺点4. 我的看法。Advantages:convenient and cheap get the meanings of words quickly clear pronunciation provide sample sentencesDisadvantages:students rely too much on it not accurate or completefalse advicesMy view: make proper use helpful 4）阐述主题型议论文）阐述主题型议论文阐述型议论文主要就某一问题正面阐述自己的观点，说明自己的理由。 阐述主题型议论文写作
29、步骤：a.揭示成语、谚语、格言的蕴义以例证展开论证结论（号召或建议） b. 引出主题按照提纲要求进一步分析主题结论（联系实际给出建议）。这种题型大多是带有说明色彩的议论文， 它要求考生从一句话或一个主题出发， 阐述其内涵，说明其重要性并以自己的观点或自身经验结尾。采用句型：描述现象描述现象描述现象描述现象 (同上） 我的看法我的看法我的看法我的看法 1) In my mind, I welcome this practice with applause.2) Personally, I think this question should be probed in depth.3) Altho
30、ugh it is widely accepted, I hold a opposite opinion that结论结论结论结论 1) All in all, we can safely come to the conclusion that.2) From what has been discussed above, we can see clearly that.真题演练 Family and Personal Development 1不同的家庭对个人成长有不同的影响 2理想的家应该是一个 3结论Different influences:happy family unhappy fam
31、ily cheerful miserablelessen the tension and pressureAn ideal family:happy and united warmth and help seek comforta source of laughterImportance:plays a very important rolethe whole society will be stable图表式议论文包括描述描述描述描述和议论议论议论议论两部分。因此行文应包括以下两部分： 描述图表，尽量清楚明确地反映出图表中数据变化的主要特征和趋势。分析问题，根据图表所反映的问题加以说明、分析
32、和评论。tipstips 描述图表，对表格、图形、数据、分类、百分比等了解清楚以及这些数据说明的问题。 注意用数字获取信息，将数字变成文字，加叙述。从图表看发展变化的趋势，找出特点、规律。适当引用图表数据，使文章“由图而发”，言之有据。 根据图表分析原因，发表议论，提出自己的看法。 基于图表所给事实，自然推导出具有说服力的结论。图表作文图表作文Step 1: Step 1: 开头句开头句开头句开头句 As is shown in the graph, the number of From the graph, we know the statistics of According to the
33、 table/ graph/ chart/ diagram, As can be seen from the table, As has been stated in the graph/table, The figures/ statistics in the chart show/ reflect that It is clear/ apparent from the chart that The number of increased suddenly from to There was a sudden increase in from to The number of remaine
34、d stableStep 2: Step 2: 总体描写变化趋势总体描写变化趋势总体描写变化趋势总体描写变化趋势Step 3: Step 3: 分开描写最大、最小、中间分开描写最大、最小、中间分开描写最大、最小、中间分开描写最大、最小、中间 On the top of the list is A, which takes up % At the bottom is B, which accounts for % B is second to A A is ranked/ rated first, followed by B at % and C at % The situation/ figu
35、res reached a peak at % in The situation/ figures bottomed out at % in A is twice/ three times as much/ many as in From to, A increased/ dropped more than sixfoldStep 4: Step 4: 分析原因分析原因分析原因分析原因Step 5: Step 5: 得出结论得出结论得出结论得出结论 ( (你的观点及看法你的观点及看法你的观点及看法你的观点及看法) )常用词组常用词组常用词组常用词组 动动词词 rise, climb, go u
36、p, grow, increase fall, decline, decrease, drop, go down level out, level off, not change, remain steady reach the highest level, hit the highest peak名词：名词：a downward trend, an upward trend, a rapid increase/decrease 副词副词：suddenly, rapidly, dramatically, substantially, considerable, sharply, steeply
37、, gradually, steadily, slowly, slightly（1）近十几年，旅游人数不断增长，下表反映国外游、国内游等人数变化情况（2）分析旅游人数不断变化的原因。1970198019902000Traveling abroad4%10%24%30%Traveling home20%25%36%56%Stay at home76%65%40%14%Total number100%100%100%100% As can be seen from the table, the past decades have witnessed dramatic changes in the
38、way people spent their holiday from 1970 to 2000. In 1970, 76% of people chose to stay at home, while the figure dropped considerably to 14% in 2000. Its obvious from the table that people tended to be more and more mobile and enthusiastic to get entertainment from the outside world. What contribute
39、d to these changes? To start with, people become richer than before and the life level has risen up. They are able to afford money for traveling home and abroad. Secondly, government is advocating tourism business for tourism makes up an important part of General Domestic Products. Thirdly, Travel a
40、gencies have cut down the prices and taken various favorable policies to attract travelers. Fourthly, people find it important to get well-informed about the outside world in this new era when everything is on the move. Besides, its an effective way for working people to release the great stress in
41、this competitive society. At last, by traveling outside, people are close to nature, which is not only beneficial to both their health and peace of mind. In conclusion, people now prefer to travel rather than stay at home. And this trend seems to be lasting in the foreseeable future. n预测之二：（问题解决型议论文
42、）nDirections: For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a composition on the topic Cyber CrimesCyber Crimes. You should write at least 150 words, and base your composition on the outline (given in Chinese) below:1)随着互联网的普及和应用，网络犯罪开始摆在世人面前2)应该如何来打击和预防网络犯罪越来越成为人们必须要解决的一个难题3)作为大学生，你应该怎么做?n Cyb
43、er CrimesnWith the popularization of Internet, cyber crimes have become a serious problem facing us. Nowadays cyber criminals seem to be everywhere on the Internet. To illustrate, some commit fraud or lift intellectual property, others snatch passwords or disrupt e-commerce, and still others unleash
44、 viruses to crash computers. As a result, these crimes destroy network security greatly and make computer users suffer great losses.n However, we shouldnt tolerate these cyber criminals any more. Its high time for us to take effective measures to fight against cyber crimes. First, we should reinforc
45、e the cyber laws to punish cyber criminals strictly. Moreover, we should develop high techniques as soon as possible to improve intrusion detection and prevent cyber crimes. Besides, more talented people should be trained and more effective firewalls should be built up so as to make the net immune t
46、o all kinds of viruses.n As college students, we have responsibility to join the battle against cyber crimes. For one thing, we should not use others computers unless we get permission. For another, we should be honest to others on the Internet and not release or spread unreal information. In a word, it takes our common efforts to defeat cyber crimes.
