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1、Knowledge Management and the Consulting IndustryAC914 week 22Steffen BhmThe ConsultantOnce upon a time there was a shepherd tending his sheep at the edge of a country road. A brand new Mustang screeches to a halt next to him. The driver, a young man dressed in an Armani suit, Cerrutti shoes, Oakley
2、glasses, TAG wrist watch and a Bhs tie gets out and asks the shepherd, If I guess how many sheep you have, will you give me one of them? The shepherd looks at the young man, then looks at the sprawling field of sheep and says, Okay. The young man parks the car, connects his notebook and wireless mod
3、em, enters a NASA site, scans the ground using his GPS, opens a database and 60 Excel tables filled with algorithms, then prints a 150 page report on his high tech mini printer. He then turns to the shepherd and says, You have exactly 1,586 sheep here. The shepherd answers: Thats correct, you can ha
4、ve your sheep. The young man takes one of the animals and puts it in the back of his vehicle. The shepherd looks at him and asks: Now, if I guess your profession, will you pay me back in kind? The young man answers: Sure. The shepherd says, You are a consultant. Exactly! How did you know? asks the y
5、oung man. Very simple, answers the shepherd. First, you came here without being called. Second, you charged me a fee to tell me something I already knew. Third, you do not understand anything about my business . and Id really like to have my dog back.What is consulting?The Collins English Dictionary
6、 reveals that to consult is to make oneself available to give professional advice, especially at scheduled times and for a fee. The term consult originates in the medical profession. There a consultant is a physician who is asked to confirm a diagnosis; or it is a physician (or surgeon) who holds th
7、e highest appointment in a particular branch of medicine or surgery in a hospital. The consultant is therefore someone mostly a specialist who is asked to give expert advice or information.The management consultantThe management consultant is a special breed of consultant. Personification of the kno
8、wledge economy; Anti-thesis to Fords assembly-line worker. Symbolises the future of work: not dirty, not heavy-duty, not manual, not monotonous, not de-skilled, not de-humanized, not badly paid; but flexible, creative, international, demanding, cross-cultural, well-paid, technologically advanced, fu
9、n. The idol of todays working world; it is one of the main drivers of the business of business educationAccenture, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC), Cap Gemini Ernst & Young, McKinsey & Co., Bain & Co., The Boston Consulting Group and Mercer (to name but a few) are the archetypal companies of todays glo
10、bal informational capital, which attract the highest calibre graduates.InterConGerman subsidiary of a global management and technology consulting companyThe IKM projectVirtual project teamITStrategyCAsOperational ProcessesCAsInformation ManagementCAsPeopleCAsGMTs (Industries)GMTs (Industries)Telecom
11、 & MediaConsumer GoodsChemicalsLife SciencesFinancial ServicesEnergyTransport/ TourismAutomotive / EngineeringUtilitiesetc.USAFranceUKGermanyDisciplinesDisciplinesPoAsPoAsSupplier NetworksElectronicBusinessEuro TransformationKnowledge- ManagementERP (Standard Software)Customer Relationship Managemen
12、tService OfferingsOrganisational Structure of InterConProject Knowledge CaptureProject Knowledge CaptureAt ProjectAt Project StartStart BeforeBefore ProjectProject EndEndAccess to KnowledgeAccess to KnowledgeFeedback and RewardsFeedback and Rewardsupdates KBaseupdates KBasefinalize knowledge capture
13、 report, copy to PKC, PM, GMT/Disc, CoE, CA, PoA KCat project end, hands over project archive to local Info Centrereview KCapture report and together with stream leads, identify Best in Class GMT documentsKeyKeyRolesRolesGMT KCGMT KCGMT Knowledge ChampionPMPMProject ManagerPKCPKCProject Knowledge Ch
14、ampionGMT KSGMT KSGMT Knowledge SpecialistCoE, CA, PoA, CoE, CA, PoA, Discipline Discipline Knowledge Knowledge SpecialistSpecialistCoE, CA, PoA, CoE, CA, PoA, Discipline Discipline Knowledge Knowledge ChampionChampionALLALLStrategicStrategicDirectionDirectionKBaseKBaseMaintenanceMaintenanceCoE, CA,
15、 CoE, CA, Disc., GMT Disc., GMT Expert Team Expert Team and KSand KSDefine and communicate the strategic knowledge management objectives and set expectations at all levelse.g. at yearly KM conference in September, Capabilities Councils and other leadership meetingsQuarterly meeting with GMT/Disc. to
16、 filter non relevant documents out, identify gaps and discuss expectations to fill the gaps. Update CD-ROM copies of Tool Boxes and KBases.Projects access knowledge via:the COMPASS (intranet which provides world-wide access to the KBases), CoE, CA, Discipline, GMT Expert Teams and KCs (whose main ro
17、le is to help develop, capture and disseminate knowledge), and Knowledge Specialists (who act as a global point of contact and answer specific, complex requests for information on a case by case basis, throughout project duration).Make Knowledge Management part of the feedback and reward loop:360o e
18、xpectation and feedback exchange for knowledge captureReward most innovative and best in class contributions.Internal knowledge management involves a number of actors at all stages of the project life cyclereview documents and allocate to the relevant (GMT, CoE, CA, Disc.) KBases updates P&PDatabase
19、Contacts PM to identify PKC and KSidentifies PKC and accountable KSsends “KC Pack” and GMT KBase CD-ROM completes P&Pform andforwards to KSfills in KCapture report and sends to KSdefine and communicate knowledge capture approach and set concrete capture expectations with teamabstract and sanitize be
20、st documents and send to KSInvolvement of all project team members is critical to achieving our objectivesGMT, CoE, CA and Disciplines KC and experts play a key role in assessing innovations and best in class contributions.In the case that the PM identifies a KS other than the GMT KS, please refer t
21、o Panel 16 to see how the KCapture process changes.A joint conference call for small projects and an on-site expectation session for large projects is suggestedA joint conference call for small projects and an on-site knowledge capture session for large projects is suggestedCapturing knowledge from
22、projects involves the following principles.Project Knowledge CaptureProject Knowledge Captureupdates KBaseupdates KBasefinalize knowledge capture report, copy to PKC, PM, GMT/Disc, CoE, CA, PoA KCat project end, hands over project archive to local Info Centrereview KCapture report andtogether with s
23、tream leads, identify Best in Class GMT documentsKeyKey RolesRolesGMT KCGMT KCGMT Knowledge ChampionPMPMProject ManagerPKCPKCProject Knowledge ChampionGMT KSGMT KSGMT Knowledge SpecialistCoE, CA, PoA, CoE, CA, PoA, Discipline Knowledge Discipline Knowledge SpecialistSpecialistCoE, CA, PoA, CoE, CA,
24、PoA, Discipline Knowledge Discipline Knowledge ChampionChampionreview documents and allocate to the relevant (GMT, CoE, CA, Disc.) KBases updates P&PDatabaseContacts PM to identify PKC and KSidentifies PKC and accountable KSsends “KC Pack” and GMT KBase CD-ROM completes P&Pform andforwards to KSfill
25、s in KCapture report and sends to KSdefine and communicate knowledge capture approach and set concrete capture expectations with teamabstract and sanitize best documents and send to KSInvolvement of all project team members is critical to achieving our objectivesGMT, CoE, CA and Disciplines KC and e
26、xperts play a key role in assessing innovations and best in class contributions.The GMT KS contacts the PM, offers Knowledge Management coaching The Project Manager (PM) identifies the Project Knowledge Champion (PKC) and the Knowledge Specialist (KS) that will be accountable for capturing the proje
27、cts knowledgeThe accountable KS will usually be the GMT KS. However, if a project is largely Discipline/CA/CoE driven (for example, IM Discipline), then the appropriate Discipline/CA/CoE KS should become the accountable Knowledge Specialist (The above process assumes the GMT KS is selected; Please s
28、ee next slide for Discipline and A&D examples) If the PM can not identify a KS, the GMT KS is selected automaticallyGMT KS sends Knowledge Capture Pack and GMT KBase CD-ROMExchange and documentation of Knowledge Capture expectationsGMT KS and other appropriate KS, PM, PKC and other project members e
29、xchange concrete knowledge capture expectations which are documented in the KCapture report (Please see appendix for a template)A joint conference call for small projects and an on-site expectation setting session for large projects is suggestedPKC sends KCapture report to GMT KS who forwards it to
30、other KS (Discipline, CA, CoE) The GMT KS ensures that the People&Project Summary is submitted by the PKCThe GMT KS ensures that the case history, case study and project archive is captured from the projectSelection of Best in Class documentsThe Knowledge Capture report should be reviewedAll project
31、 members (under the leadership of PKC) review all relevant documents and select most innovative and other Best in Class GMT as well as Disc./CA/CoE documents GMT, Discipline, CA and CoE Knowledge Specialists, Knowledge Champions and other experts can be consulted to identify Best in Class documents
32、A one-day Knowledge Capture session with all relevant KS is suggested for large projects; a joint conference call should be organised for KCapture from small projectsThe KCapture report is updated by the PKC and sent to GMT KSAll identified Best in Class documents are abstracted (in English) by the
33、project members and submitted to the GMT KS who is forwarding relevant documents to other Knowledge Specialists (according to KCapture report)All KS review the submitted documents and update their Knowledge Domains accordinglyThe Knowledge Capture report is finalized by all involved KS (under leader
34、ship of GMT KS) and forwarded to the PKC as well as copied to the PM and all relevant Knowledge ChampionsPrinciplesPrinciplesAt ProjectAt Project StartStartBeforeBefore ProjectProject EndEndIn the case that the PM identifies a KS other than the GMT KS, please refer to Panel 16 to see how the KCaptur
35、e process changes.A joint conference call for small projects and an on-site expectation session for large projects is suggestedA joint conference call for small projects and an on-site knowledge capture session for large projects is suggestedFiltering relevant documents ensures higher quality conten
36、t in the Knowledge BaseRelevant project Relevant project documents are documents are collected throughout collected throughout the projectthe projectAll project members All project members (under consultation (under consultation with appropriate KS with appropriate KS and/or KC) determine and/or KC)
37、 determine whether document whether document should be submitted should be submitted or identify any next or identify any next stepsstepsNoNoInclude document in Best in Include document in Best in Class document pack and submit Class document pack and submit to GMT KSto GMT KSYesNoYesYesAll project
38、members All project members (under the (under the leadership of PKC) leadership of PKC) review all relevant review all relevant documentsdocumentsNoYesHow do we value the importance of the doc for the CA, CoE, GMT, PoA or Disc.?Is document an addition or build to an existing document or technology?I
39、s document a new application of an existing tool or technology?InnovativeInnovativeKeyBasic Project Members must select the Best in Class project documents and abstract them. One day on-site knowledge capture session together with Knowledge Specialists is suggested for large projects.This is the det
40、ailed workplan for Knowledge Capturing0.Setup0.1Technical infrastructure- Get organized quickly! Chose the easiest way to transfer files to your machine. Use disks if necessary.1.Data Mining1.1Data Transfer- copy all files into directory A, copy them one-by-one to directory B and rename according to
41、 standards1.2Keep Track of files- use Excel-sheet to identify and categorize every file. Be very exact with this XLS-sheet!2.Structuring2.1Project plan- have the project lead or workstream leads make a draft or use a presentation on this issue, define topics- get them to identify important files and
42、 assign them to topics, mark files without topic for later use2.2HMTL-structure- use templates as much as you can, keep to standards, involve leads with design3.Prototyping3.1Graphics- convert ppt-files to jpgs, map them, define topic HTML-file names- create the topic-HTML files3.2HTML-templates- ad
43、d client logos, change colors, but stick with the standards!4.Encoding4.1HTML-files- check XLS-sheet for gaps, have leads fill them in or set marks- use mail-merge feature from Word, view file and save each file with correct filename (tedious, but critical)5.Refining5.1Abstracts and Keywords- have a
44、uthors write up some keywords where necessary, add purpose information when apropriate5.2Test, test, test the structure, links and assets6.Production & Presentation Knowledge Capture on Project XXXWorkstreamArea of Knowledge CaptureWhat Aspects are Novel & WhyRelevant for which unitProposed Capture
45、DateProject“A”KS“A”To be filled out by Project teamTo be filled out by KS teamActual Capture DateKBases/HomepagesKnowledge Domains of GMTs, Disciplines/CAs and CoEs will have the following basic structureIntroductions, Points of View, Training Material, Case Studies, External ReadingsBDBDBusiness Bu
46、siness DevelopmentDevelopmentA&DA&DAnalysis & Analysis & DesignDesignRDRDResults DeliveryResults DeliveryIndustry issuesConferences and seminar presentationsMarketing materialCompetitor intelligenceClient referencesWhat we findProposal examplesPeople and facultyA&D/ impact case studiesProject design
47、Program managementand monitoringBenefits caseChecklistsTools/ methodologiesBest practicesProgram management and monitoringH2 guide and toolsBenefits tracking01Read me firstProcess of Knowledge captureContacts and ExpertsCurrent Live project portfolio01 Point of Views:InterCons point of view on a giv
48、en industry or methodology, i.e. some perspective is brought to the document rather than a recitation of facts/stepsOften, but not always, a short document (15-20 pages)includes “what we finds”02 Detailed Industry Overviews:Detailed overview of a specific industrySame content as Point of View, but m
49、ore detail and more emphasis on analysisIn-depth description of industries (major players, industry structure, critical success factors)03 Marketing Support Materials:Quality material to share with clients during business development and other client communication activities, including:Capability br
50、ochures/statements Conference presentationsHorseblankets/whitepapersProposals/proposal lettersRed issues (selling issues for a given client/industry)RFP (Request for Proposal; as InterCon uses the term typically a detailed response to a clients Request for Proposal on a given project)What we finds (
51、common issues in a given industry or function within an industry)04 Training Modules:Training-focused documents to guide InterCon and client team members in applying methodology or in understanding an industry including:Competency overview/training objectivesDetailed methodology approach; details im
52、plementation stepsCritical success factorsIssues/challenges, lessons learnedTools/diagnostics required05 Key Tools & Diagnostics (Industry specific):For each diagnostic/tool relevant to methodologyHow to apply/use tool, expected results, detailed stepsSample panel set for presenting to client/steeri
53、ng committeeActual diagnostic tool of survey, spreadsheets, interviews, etc., and sources for vendor toolsAny scoring spreadsheets or resources who can assist06 Industry Examples/Approaches:Documents developing during the course of a project, outlining how InterCon plans to conduct work and what del
54、iverables will result or the final deliverables themselves. Includes:As Is/interview findingsA&D business casesChartersIssues/challenges, lessons learnedFinal reports/deliverablesImplementation plansProject designs/approachesRD executive updatesStrategic recommendationsValue chainsWorkshop items07 C
55、ase StudiesDocuments detailing what work InterCon conducted on behalf of a client including points such as the background of the project, what we found, what we did and what we are looking forward to.08 Benchmarking Studies/Approaches:Benchmarking documents may contain metrics (specific figures, e.g
56、. 23 widgets per fortnight), processes (e.g. ACME utilises concurrent engineering to get gadgets to market faster and with fewer defects), or both.09 Competitor Profiles/Approaches:Documentation referencing how competitors apply methodologyOther names for methodologyIndustry experienceLessons learne
57、d10 External Reading List:Abstracts of important books and articles relevant to methodologyInclude accurate source for each (title, author, date, journal title and page numbers if appropriate)Content for Industry HomepagesH2 get from an unstructured heap of project filesto a fully operational Intran
58、et structure in 5 daysTaskTimetableDescriptionDeliverables1. Data Mining2. Structuring0. Setup3. Prototyping4. Encoding5. Refining6. ProductionConnect to local systemsCollect all files fromprojectDefine project plan, assign files to topicsDesign Internet pages and logical structureCreate HTML-files,
59、create linksImprove abstracts,review keywordsProduce finalizedVersion, PresentationMonTueWedThuFriTechnical infrastructurein placeAll files renamed and catalogized, XLS-sheetKey areas defined,XLS-sheet updatedHTML-structure and links definedHTML-files created andlinked into structureAll abstracts fi
60、nalized with keywordsFinished Intranet Knowledge Base Task 0 - SetupRequirementsExternal InputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessons LearnedNever underestimate the time it takes to set up a system in a foreign environment!- fully equipped hardware- complete set of software- information on infrastructu
61、re- disks, laplink-cable, modem- telephone and modem line- room to work- access to systems- User-ID, password- incompatible HW/SW- no system access- limited access to shared resources- set up computer, check modem connection- estimate best data transfer method- check data transfer and compatibility-
62、 get info on what material to obtain- check availability of shared resources- solution of major IT obstacles- independently operational system- hard-/ software checks- scope of data transfer definedTask 1 - Data MiningRequirementsExternal InputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessons LearnedSome files e
63、xist in older version. Make sure you have the newest one! Check in all disks and sources available.- connection to network OR- laplink connection- other data media- access to systems- User-ID, password- list of required files- incompatible HW/SW- no system access- limited access to shared resources-
64、 transfer data- rename files according to standards- create XLS-sheet with file information- all files copied and categorized- XLS-sheet updated and completeTask 2 - StructuringRequirementsExternal InputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessons LearnedA good design of the project plan improves the catego
65、rizing of the files. - agreement on project scope- support from project leads- draft of project plan- defined topic areas- ideas on design- project lead not available- too many files undefined- design project plan graphics- define HTML-structure- design HTML-template pages (abstracts)- design of pro
66、ject plan graphics- design of HTML-structure- design of HTML-pages- updated XLS-sheetTask 3 - PrototypingRequirementsExternal InputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessons LearnedCreating graphics for internet pages takes time. Dont try to get perfect images. - OK for project plan design- workstream lea
67、ds- projects leads- complexity too high- integration cannot be visualized- create project plan graphics- create HTML-map and links- create HTML-template- HTML-structure operational- project plan map complete- HTML-templates finalizedTask 4 - EncodingRequirementsExternal InputsObstaclesActionsDeliver
68、ablesLessons LearnedKeep a tracker on missing or faulty links. Also watch out for double references and changes in target links.- structure and design MUST be ready and approved- XLS-sheet complete- HTML-templates approved- OK for design and structure- gaps in XLS-sheet might be forgotten- use Word
69、mail-merge feature to create all HTML-abstracts- test structure and links- all HTML-pages and links created- programming completedTask 5 - RefiningRequirementsExternal InputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessons LearnedNever underestimate the time it takes to set up a system in a foreign environment!-
70、 project team should check the quality and structure- builds from project- test runs- incompatible HW/SW- no system access- limited access to shared resources- identify weak abstracts and enhance quality- have team members test the system- wrap up missing ends- solution of major IT obstacles- indepe
71、ndently operational system- hard-/ software checks- scope of data transfer definedTask 6 - ProductionRequirementsExternal InputsObstaclesActionsDeliverablesLessons LearnedIn order to deliver a CD-ROM, you have to keep to deadlines. Dont overengineer the abstracts!- all activities around designing an
72、d encoding are finished and approved- all links are checked, all files are accessible- approval of work- files have been updated- update XLS-sheet to finalized version- remove template and design files- check for viruses- burn complete set on CD-ROM - presentation for project team- CD-ROM with conte
73、ntsKnowledge and ITSwan et al. (1999) have found in a review of the knowledge management literature that in 1998 nearly 70 per cent of knowledge management related articles appeared in information systems and information technology literatures.“Knowledge management is much more than technology, but
74、techknowledgy is clearly a part of knowledge management” (Davenport and Prusak, 1998: 123).“The mere existence of knowledge somewhere in the organization is of little benefit; it becomes a valuable corporate asset only if it is accessible, and its value increases with the level of accessibility” (ib
75、id.: 18)Expert systems, artificial intelligence, desktop videoconferencing, hypertext systems such as intranets and knowledge maps. The purpose of harnessing knowledge is, of course, clear: to turn knowledge into a valuable corporate asset, which will help to increase the competitive advantage of co
76、mpanies.Knowledge and Intellectual Capital“The formation of the discourse on intellectual capital is predicated upon the assumption that the traditional double-entry bookkeeping system is not able to reflect emerging realities. It is an inadequate tool for measuring the value of corporations whose v
77、alue, it is claimed, lies mainly in their intangible components.” (Yakhlef and Salzer-Mrling, 2000: 20)Today, it is argued that company assets not only include material artefacts, properties and financial assets, but also employees and organisational knowledges, which explicitly reside in peoples he
78、ads and are tacitly embodied. Some knowledge management writers have therefore called for the development of new systems, that would enable a more adequate valuation of companies assets, and provide tools for exploiting existing tacit and explicit knowledge bases more effectively (see, for example,
79、Brooking, 1996; Edvinsson and Malone, 1998; Lynn, 1998; Nahaphiet and Ghoshal, 1998; Roos et al., 1998; Stewart, 1998; Zeleny, 1989). Tacit KnowledgeKnow something in theory and practical common sense (Spender, 1996). In many world languages this distinction can be made more explicit, e.g. wissen an
80、d kennen, savoir and connatre. know-what and know-how. knowing about something and knowing through direct experience (King, 1964) or knowledge about and knowledge of acquaintance (James, 1950). While experience is directly related to know-how, know-what is the result of “systematic thought that elim
81、inates the subjective and contextual contingencies of experience” (Spender, 1996: 49). Blackler (1995): embrained, embodied, encultured, embedded and encoded.Spender (1996): conscious (explicit individual knowledge), objectified (explicit organisational knowledge), automatic (preconscious individual
82、 knowledge) and collective (practical, context-dependent organisational knowledge). “The quintessential knowledge-creation process takes place when tacit knowledge is converted into explicit knowledge. In other words, our hunches, perceptions, mental models, beliefs, and experiences are converted to
83、 something that can be communicated and transmitted in formal and systematic language.” (Nonaka and Takeuchi: 1995: 230-231, italics added) The Knowledge Commodity“The commodity reflects the social characteristics of mens own labour as objective characteristics of the products of labour themselvesIt
84、 is nothing but the definite social relation between men themselves which assumes here, for them, the fantastic form of a relation between things.” (Marx, 1976: 164-165)Commodity Fetishism“The mysterious character of the commodity-form consists therefore simply in the fact that the commodity reflect
85、s the social characteristics of mens own labour as objective characteristics of the products of labour themselves, as the socio-natural properties of these things. Hence it also reflects the social relation of the producers to the sum total of labour as a social relation between objects, a relation
86、which exists apart from and outside the producers. Through this substitution, the products of labour become commodities, sensuous things which are at the same time supra-sensible or social. In the same way, the impression made by a thing on the optic nerve is perceived not as a subjective excitation
87、 of that nerve but as the objective form of a thing outside the eye. In the act of seeing, of course, light is really transmitted from one thing, the external object, to another thing, the eye. It is a physical relation between physical things. As against this, the commodity-form, and the value-rela
88、tion of the products of labour within which it appears, have absolutely no connection with the physical nature of the commodity and the material dinglich relations arising out of this. It is nothing but the definite social relation between men themselves which assumes here, for them, the fantastic f
89、orm of a relation between things. In order, therefore, to find an analogy we must take flight into the misty realm of religion. There the products of the human brain appear as autonomous figures endowed with a life of their own, which enter into relations both with each other and with the human race
90、. So it is in the world of commodities with the products of mens hands. I call this the fetishism which attaches itself to the products of labour as soon as they are produced as commodities, and is therefore inseparable from the production of commodities.” (Marx, 1976: 165)Knowledge Management and M
91、anagement KnowledgeJackson and Carter write: “Management knowledgeconstitutes a relatively homogeneous canon that claims to be able to improve organizational efficiency (and, thereby, profit, though the link is rarely demonstrable), in particular through the adoption of specific techniques for the u
92、se of labour. The general objective of these techniques is to enable units of labour to be more productive that is, to work harder” (1998: 151)For Jackson and Carter, management knowledge is thus “an ideologically based canon, biased in favour of an essentially capitalist interest. It functions as p
93、art of the techno-mediatic hegemony that sustains this dominant discourse” (1998: 152). ReferencesSwan et al. (1999) Knowledge management and innovation: networks and networking, Journal of Knowledge Management, 3(4): 262-275.Davenport, Thomas H. and Laurence Prusak (1998) Working Knowledge: How Org
94、anizations Manage What They Know. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.Yakhlef, Ali and Miriam Salzer-Morling (2000) Intellectual Capital: Managing by Numbers, in Craig Prichard, Richard Hull, Mike Chumer and Hugh Willmott (eds.) Managing Knowledge: Critical Investigations of Work and Learning. Lon
95、don: Macmillan, 20-36.Edvinsson, Leif and Michael S. Malone (1998) Intellectual Capital. London: Piatkus.Zeleny, Milan (1989) Knowledge as a New Form of Capital, Human Systems Management, 8.Lynn, Gary S. (1998) New Product Team Learning: Developing and Profiting From Your Knowledge Capital, Californ
96、ia Management Review, 40(4): 74-93.Nahapiet, Janine and Sumantra Ghoshal (1998) Social Capital, Intellectual Capital and the Organizational Advantage, Academy of Management Review, 23(2): 242-266.Stewart, Thomas A. (1998) Intellectual Capital. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing.Roos, Johan; Goran R
97、oos; Leif Edvinsson and Nicola C. Dragonetti (1997) Intellectual Capital. London: Macmillan.Brooking, Annie (1996) Intellectual Capital. London: International Thomson Business Press.Spender, J.-C. (1996) Making Knowledge the Basis of a Dynamic Theory of the Firm, Strategic Management Journal, 17: 45
98、-62.Blackler, Frank (1995) Knowledge, Knowledge Work and Organizations, an Overview and Interpretation. Organization Studies. 16(6): 1021-1046.King, David (1964) Training within the Organization. London: Tavistock.Nonaka, Ikujiro and Hirotaka Takeuchi (1995) The Knowledge-Creating Company. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Marx, Karl (1976) Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Vol. 1, trans. Ben Fowkes. London: Penguin.
