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1、literature-review(literature-review(如何如何写文献综述写文献综述) )Outline1.Necessity of writing a LR 2.Classifications of LR 3.Major components4.Writing procedures5.Writing principles6.Difficulties and solutionsHomework1.Whydoweneedreviewingliterature?No research is carried out in a vacuum;A link between the pas
2、t and the future;Naturally lead to your proposed study.Lead-inreading文献综述撰写的原则和方法-张庆宗1.What is a literature review?2.Whats use of writing LR?Whatisaliteraturereview?pA literature review is an objective, thorough summary and critical analysis of the relevant available research and non-research litera
3、ture on the topic being studied (Hart, 1998).1.up-to-date information on a topic; 2.form the basis for the justification for future research in the area;3.gathers basic information about a particular subject from many sources; 4.limit personal biases (Carnwell and Daly, 2001). CriteriaofagoodLR1.Goo
4、d structuring 2.Accurate use of terminology 3.Accurate referencing p(Colling, 2003).Whattoreview?1.To find out research background of the research area2.To know about the others contribution3.To detect weak points in the current research4.To provide the framework, methodological assumptions, data-co
5、llection techniques, key conceptsReviewfocuses1.The prevailing and current theories underlying the research problems;2.The main controversies about the issue and about the problem;3.The major findings in the area;4.The studies considered to be the better ones, and the reason; 5. The types of researc
6、h studies which can provide the basis for the current theories and controversies;6. Criticism of the work in the area;7. The rationale and purpose of the proposed study.2.ClassificationpBackgroundpHistorypTheoryn翻译图式研究综述n体验式教学法研究综述pMethodologyn翻译教学与研究的新框架语料库翻译学综述pComprehensiven英语写作中纠错性反馈的有效性与策略-文献综述
7、ExamplespESP的性质、范畴和教学原则的性质、范畴和教学原则兼谈在我国高校兼谈在我国高校开展多种类型英语教学的可行性开展多种类型英语教学的可行性 p近三十年来我国高校英语专业教学回顾与展望近三十年来我国高校英语专业教学回顾与展望 p秦秀白 华南理工大学学报(社会科学版)p外语教师教育研究综述外语教师教育研究综述p刘学惠 外语教学与研究3.MajorelementsinLRp4.WritingprinciplespMajor principles to follow:1.Review the sources that are most relevant to your thesis.2.
8、Describe or write your review as clear and objective as you can.Tips1.Define key terms or concepts clearly and be relevant to your topic.2.Discuss the least-related reference to your question first and the most relevant last.3.Conclude your review with a brief summary.4.Start writing your review ear
9、ly.5.DifficultiespContentpOrganizingShouldIlistallthedefinitionsofaterm?pCommon problem1.A dozen of definition2.Definition for all the termse.g. communication strategies and L2 speaking abilitypCommunication; communication strategies; communication competence? pVariables to be measured in your study
10、 have to be defined conceptually.ExamplepRelationship between motivation and L2 achievement of non-English majorsnEducation?nOf the children and middle school students in L1 learning?nOf the adult in L2 learning?pSolution:1.L2 motivation in and outside the Chinese context2.Adult L2 learningWhatshall
11、Idoiftherearenoempiricalstudiestobecommented?pUse of L1 in L2 writingnNo empirical studies.pSolution:nUse of L1 in L2 reading?nSpeaking?1.Examine from a wider perspective and search for the most pertinent studies to evaluate.Difficultiesinorganizing1.no logic link among subheadings fragmentary patch
12、es, not coherent pFunnel approach 漏斗原则from the general to the specificfrom the abstract to the concreteform the theoretical to the empiricalfrom the “long shots” to the “close-ups”from others to your studyDifficultiesinorganizing2. A series of empirical studies need to be described or commented on.
13、How to present them? common ways to present:pvariablespresearch designs: cross-sectional; longitudinalptypes of subjectspdesigns in data-collectionpfindingsptheoretical assumptions (e.g.: L2 proficiency)Frequently-occurringproblems1. No direct relevancenRelevancy is the first and paramount criterion
14、 for judging the quality of a review.n“How is it relevant to my study?”2. No proper headings and clear signpostnProper headings help readers anticipate the content and capture the flow of argument.nAttention!pNumbering and wording (parallelism)23p语体(genre)意识: nAcademic English vs. Colloquial English
15、:p我们对网络经济越来越有兴趣。net economyp人们对网上购物作了很多研究。online shopping 24p我们对网络英语越来越有兴趣。1.Were more and more interested in net English.2.Weve more and more interests in net English. 3.We are increasingly interested in net English. 4.There are growing interests in net English. 5.Net English has attracted increasi
16、ng interests.6.Increasing interests have emerged in net English. 7.Growing interests have been focused on net English.8.Increasing interests have been directed to net English. 25p人们对网上购物作了很多研究。1. Weve done a lot of research about online shopping. 2.Theres a lot of research about online shopping. 3.
17、There is considerable research investigating online shopping. 4. Much research has been done to explore online shopping. 5. Considerable research has been conducted regarding online shopping. 26Group Sentences1a) From the above analysis, we can see the Internet plays a significant role in our daily
18、life. b) The above analysis seems to indicate that the Internet plays a significant role in our daily life. 2a) More and more students in China think its very important for them to learn English well.b) An increasing number of students in China maintain that it is of great significance for them to c
19、ommand the English language.3a) The Internet has both advantages and disadvantages, so we should know how to use it properly.b) The Internet has both advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, it is of necessity for us to have the knowledge of how to use it properly. 27Colloquial EnglishAcademic Engli
20、shWord level:1. length: short & simple, e.g., - a lot of; plenty of - more and more- think- so 2. affixation: no derived forms - do (research)- a lot of Word level:1. length: long & complex, e.g., - considerable; numerous- increasing, increasingly- maintain, state, according to - therefore, conseque
21、ntly, hence, thus2. affixation: derived forms- conduct (research)- numerous, considerable Sentence level:1. subject: concrete nouns /pronouns (e.g., I, we, you, they)2. length: short & simple3. voice: active voice4. abbreviations, e.g., Its 5. omissions, e.g., “that” as an object clause marker is of
22、ten omitted. 6. synonyms: Not often used. Sentence level:1. subject: abstract nouns2. length and variety: long & complex3. voice: active & passive voice4. few abbreviations, e.g., It is5. few omissions, e.g., “that” as an object clause marker is seldom omitted6. synonyms: Often used. Frequentproblem
23、inwritingbyCSn中国学生在学术写作中通常出现的问题，如：nAt Tsinghua, the best university in China, considerable importance is attached to improving students English in that all of them will have the chance to use it after their graduation.nLack of awareness of hedging.6.EvaluatingmaterialsBefore you read authorship and
24、authority; accuracy and verifiabilityLR 1 vs. LR 2LiteratureReview1pSmith (1990) conducted an experiment on fear and self-esteem with 150 undergraduates. In the study he tested subject self-esteem and then exposed subjects one at a time to a fear-inducing situation. He found that those with lower se
25、lfesteem felt greater fear. Jones and Jones (1982) surveyed elderly residents. The respondents who had the greatest independence, self-esteem, and physical health, had the lowest degree of fear of being the victim of crime. In a study of college women, Rosenberg (1979) found that the greater indepen
26、dence one felt, the less the fear of being left alone in a darkened room. DeSallos study (1984) of 45 college males found that those who had the greatest self-esteem felt the least degree of failure. Yu (1988) found the same for college females. Hong (1980) conducted a telephone survey of 200 welfar
27、e recipients and found no relationship between feelings of independence and fear of crime.LiteratureReview2pPeople with greater self-esteem appear to be less fearful. Laboratory studies with college students (DeSallo, 1984; Smith, 1990; Yu, 1988) find a strong negative relationship between self-este
28、em and fear. The same relationship was found in a survey of elderly people (Jones and Jones, 1982). Only one study contradicted this finding (Johnson, 1985). The contradictory finding may be due to the population used (prison inmates). In general, it appears that self-esteem and fear are negatively
29、related. Self-esteem is strongly related to feelings of independence (see Gomez, 1977; Zarnoth, 1985), and independence was found to decrease feelings of fear of crime (Jones, 1982; Rosenberg, 1979). Only Hong (1980) did not find a significant relation between independence and fear of crime. It was
30、the only study that studied welfare recipients.CommentsonLR1andLR2p综述2明显比综述1要好。Why?n综述1尽管文字表达比较清晰、流畅，但它仅仅只是将相关文献进行简单地罗列和排序，也没有对这些文献进行评价。n综述2有机地整合了相关文献，中心意思明确，文字简洁。主题句(斜体部分)提纲挈领，分别整合了自尊与恐惧、自尊与独立性关系的研究，同时，对文献进行了客观的评价，使读者对所综述的文献有一个直观、清晰的认识。WhenyoureadpTable of contents pIndexes pPrefaces, forewords, gl
31、ossaries, and appendicespChapter titles, headings, and subheadingspOrganizationpBeginnings and endingsAfteryoureadpValue relevance over convenience.pQuestions for you to consider:1.How does the source relate to your thesis?2.Date and form of the publications?3.Objectivity?4.The intended audience?5.C
32、redibility?6.Critics?7.Source language?8.Informative?9.Reappearing facts?Note-taking1.The preliminary bibliographypPB helps you to pinpoint sources that prove valuable.pVS. final bibliography that usu. appears at the end of research paper.pNote book paperpCards or slipsInformationyouneedtorecordpBoo
33、kpName of author, editorpDatepTitle and subtitlepEditionpPlace of publicationpPublisherpPage numbers pArticlepName of author, editorpDatepTitle and subtitlepName of publicationpVolume of professional or scholarly publicationpPage numbers Typesofnotes1.Quotation note (4 reasons; less than 30%)2.Parap
34、hrase note3.Summary note4.Combination note5.Outline note6.Personal comment noteQualitiesofgoodnotespLegibilitypTake notes on cardspTake notes in inkpWrite on only one side of a cardpPut only one idea on a cardpUse whatever abbreviations you find convenient for notespAccuracypCompletenessAccuracypRea
35、d your research material carefullypRead preciselypDistinguish among facts, inference and opinionspUse conventional mechanics of spelling, capitalization, and punctuationCompletenesspIdentify the source of what appears on each cardpMark the page numberpmark the subject Homework2:pWriting a literature
36、 review.Literaturereview:majorcomponents1.前言（Introduction）：进行该项研究的意义，或者为什么要开展该项研究或为什么要写这篇文章。2.主体（国内外研究进展与现状Literature Review）：（1）在国外（International），都有哪些人或者哪些机构在该领域做了哪些事，开展了哪些方面的研究，他们采用的是什么方法，解决了什么问题，优势在哪，不足又在哪，对于他们存在的不足，你有什么可能的解决方法。（2）在国内（China），都有哪些人或者哪些机构在该领域做了哪些事，开展了哪些方面的研究，他们采用的是什么方法，解决了什么问题，优势在
37、哪，不足又在哪，对于他们存在的不足，你有什么可能的解决方法。 3.总结（未来展望Future work）：对于目前国内外的研究现状，你认为未来可从哪些方面加以深入研究。 7. Steps for Writing a Lit ReviewpPlanningpReading and ResearchpAnalyzingpDraftingpRevisingAnalyzingSourcespA literature review is never just a list of studiesit always offers an argument about a body of researchpAn
38、alysis occurs on two levels:nIndividual sourcesnBody of researchFourAnalysisTasksoftheLiteratureReviewTASKS OF LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARIZESYNTHESIZECRITIQUECOMPARESummaryandSynthesisIn your own words, summarize and/or synthesize the key findings relevant to your study.pWhat do we know about the imme
39、diate area?pWhat are the key arguments, key characteristics, key concepts or key figures?pWhat are the existing debates/theories?pWhat common methodologies are used?SampleLanguageforSummaryandSynthesispNormadin has demonstratedpEarly work by Hausman, Schwarz, and Graves was concerned withpElsayed an
40、d Stern compared algorithms for handlingpAdditional work by Karasawa et. al, Azadivar, and Parry et. al deals withExample1:SummaryandSynthesisUnder the restriction of small populations, four possible ways to avoid premature convergence were presented. The first one is to revise the gene operators. .
41、 . .Griffiths and Miles applied advanced two-dimensional gene operators to search the optimal cross-section of a beam and significantly improve results. The second way is to adjust gene probability. Leite and Topping adopted a variable mutation probability and obtained an outperformed result. Exampl
42、e2:SummaryandSynthesisPiagets theory of stages of cognitive development and Eriksons stages of psychosocial development are commonly used for educational psychology courses (Borich & Tombari; LeFrancois; Slavin etc.). Piaget described characteristic behaviors, including artistic ones such as drawing
43、, as evidence of how children think and what children do as they progress beyond developmental milestones into and through stages of development. ComparisonandCritiqueEvaluates the strength and weaknesses of the work:pHow do the different studies relate? What is new, different, or controversial?pWha
44、t views need further testing?pWhat evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradicting, or too limited?pWhat research designs or methods seem unsatisfactory? Sample1:LanguageforComparisonandCritiquepIn this ambitious but flawed study, Jones and WangpThese general results, reflecting the stochastic natu
45、re of the flow of goods, are similar to those reported by Rosenblatt and RollpThe critical response to the poetry of Phillis Wheatley often registers disappointment or surprise. Some critics have complained that the verse of this African American slave is insecure (Collins 78), imitative (Richmond 5
46、4-66), and incapacitated (Burke 33-38)at worst, the product of a “White mind” (Jameson 414-15). Others, in contrast, have applauded Wheatleys critique of Anglo-American discourse(Kendrick 222-23), her revision of literary modelsSample2:LanguageforComparisonandCritiquepThe situationist model has also
47、 received its share of criticism. One of the most frequently cited shortcomings of this approach centers around the assumption that individuals enter into the work context tabula rasa.Sample3:LanguageforComparisonandCritiqueEvaluativeAdjectivespUnusualpSmallpSimplepExploratorypLimitedpRestrictedpFla
48、wedpComplexpCompetentpImportantpInnovativepImpressivepUsefulpCarefulAnalyzing:PuttingItAllTogetherOnce you have summarized, synthesized, compared, and critiqued your chosen material, you may consider whether these studiespDemonstrate the topics chronological development.pShow different approaches to
49、 the problem.pShow an ongoing debate.pCenter on a “seminal” study or studies.pDemonstrate a “paradigm shift.”pWhat do researchers KNOW about this field?pWhat do researchers NOT KNOW?pWhy should we (further) study this topic?pWhat will my study contribute?Analyzing:PuttingItAllTogether8.Drafting:AnOv
50、erviewTo help you approach your draft in a manageable fashion, this section addresses the following topics:pExigency pThesis StatementpOrganization pIntroduction and conclusion pCitationsThesisStatementsThe thesis statement offers an argument about the literature. It may do any of or a combination o
51、f the following:pOffer an argument and critical assessment of the literature (i.e. topic + claim).pProvide an overview of current scholarly conversations.pPoint out gaps or weaknesses in the literature.pRelate the literature to the larger aim of the study.Example1:ThesisStatements In spite of these
52、difficulties we believe that pre-service elementary art teachers and classroom teachers need some knowledge of stage theories of childrens developmentthen goes on to review theories of development Research on the meaning and experience of home has proliferated over the past two decades, particularly
53、 within the disciplines of sociology, anthropology, psychology, human geography, history, architecture and philosophy. . . . Many researchers now understand home as a multidimensional concept and acknowledge the presence of and need for multidisciplinary research in the field. However, with the exce
54、ption of two exemplary articles by Desprs and Somerville few have translated this awareness into genuinely, interdisciplinary studies of the meaning of home.Example2:ThesisStatements Polyvalence refers to the simultaneous binding of multiple ligands on one entity to multiple receptors on another. .
55、. . In this article, I review recent developments in polyvalence and discuss the numerous opportunities for chemical engineers to make contributions to this exciting field, whose applications include drug discovery, tissue engineering, and nanofabrication.Example3:ThesisStatements In this article, w
56、e review and critique scholarship on place-based education in order to consider the ingredients of a critical place-based pedagogy for the arts and humanities. . . We begin by reviewing ecohumanisms call for a more locally responsive education in light of the marginalization of place and communityEx
57、ample4:ThesisStatements9.OrganizationFive common approaches to organizing the body of your paper include:1.Topical2.Distant to close3.Debate4.Chronological5.Seminal StudyCharacteristics1:TopicalpMost common approachpBreaks the field into a number of subfields, subject areas, or approaches pDiscusses
58、 each subsection individually, sometimes with critiques of eachpMost useful for organizing a large body of literature that does not have one or two studies that stand out as most important or a clear chronological developmentpThree important areas of this field have received attention: A, B, C. pA h
59、as been approached from two perspectives F and G.pThe most important developments in terms of B have beenpC has also been an important area of study in this field.Characteristics1:TopicalCharacteristics2:DistanttoClosepA type of topical organization, with studies grouped by their relevance to curren
60、t research.nStarts by describing studies with general similarities to current research and ends with studies most relevant to the specific topic.nMost useful for studies of methods or models.pMethod/Model M (slightly similar to current research) addresses pDrawing upon method/model N (more similar t
61、o current research) can help . . .pThis study applies the procedure used in method/model O (most similar to current research) to . . .Characteristics2:DistanttoCloseCharacteristics3:DebatepAnother type of topical approach, with a chronological component.pEmphasizes various strands of research in whi
62、ch proponents of various models openly criticize one another.pMost useful when clear opposing positions are present in the literature.TypicalLanguageofDebatepThere have been two (three, four, etc.) distinct approaches this problem.pThe first model positspThe second model argues that the first model
63、is wrong for three reasons. Instead, the second model claimsCharacteristics4:ChronologicalpLists studies in terms of chronological development pUseful when the field displays clear development over a period of time nLinear progressionnParadigm shiftpThis subject was first studied by X, who argued/fo
64、undpIn (date), Y modified/extended/contradicted Xs work bypToday, research by Z represents the current state of the field.Characteristics:ChronologicalCharacteristics5:SeminalStudypBegins with detailed description of extremely important study.pLater work is organized using another pattern. pMost use
65、ful when one study is clearly most important or central in laying the groundwork for future research.pThe most important research on this topic was the study by X in (date).pFollowing Xs study, research fell into two camps (extended Xs work, etc.)Characteristics5:SeminalStudyExercise:OrganizationalP
66、atternsReview the four examples and answer the following questions:pCan you identify the organizational pattern for each of the four samples?pDo you recognize these from your field?pWhich one are you most likely to use?IntroductionspIndicate scope of the literature review.pProvide some background to
67、 the topic.pDemonstrate the importance or need for research.pMake a claim.pOffer an overview/map of the ensuing discussion.Example:IntroductionpThere is currently much controversy over how nonhuman primates understand the behavior of other animate beings. On the one hand, they might simply attend to
68、 and recall the specific actions of others in particular contexts, and therefore, when that context recurs, be able to predict their behavior (Tomasello & Call, 1994, 1997). On the other hand, they might be able to understand something of the goals or intentions of others and thus be able to predict
69、 others behaviors in a host of novel circumstances. Several lines of evidence (e.g., involving processes of social learning; Tomasello, 1997) and a number of anecdotal observations (e.g., Savage-Rumbaugh, 1984) have been adduced on both sides of the question, but few studies directly address the que
70、stion: Do nonhuman primates understand the intentions of others?ConclusionspSummarize the main findings of your review.pProvide closure.pExplain “so what?”pImplications for future research.ORpConnections to the current study.Example:ConclusionpIn summary, although there is some suggestive evidence t
71、hat chimpanzees may understand others intentions, there are also negative findings (e.g., Povinelli et al., 1998) and a host of alternative explanations. As a consequence, currently it is not clear whether chimpanzees (or other nonhuman primates) distinguish between intentional and accidental action
72、s performed by others. In contrast, there are several studies indicating that children as young as 14 months of age have some understanding of others intentions, but the lack of comparative studies makes it difficult to know how children compare to apes. This study is the first to directly compare c
73、hildren, chimpanzees, and orangutans with the use of a nonverbal task in which the subjects were to discriminate between the experimenters intentional and accidental actions.CitingSourcesIf its not your own idea (and not common knowledge)DOCUMENT IT!pParaphrase key ideas. pUse quotations sparingly.p
74、Introduce quotations effectively.pUse proper in-text citation to document the source of ideas. pMaintain accurate bibliographic records. CitingSources:ThingstoAvoidpPlagiarismpIrrelevant quotations.pUn-introduced quotations.Examples:CitingSourcespQuoting: Despite pleasant depictions of home life in
75、art, the fact remains that for most Seventeenth-century Dutch women, the home represented a curtailment of some degree of independence. Art historian Laurinda Dixon writes that “for the majority of women, however, home was a prison, though a prison made bearable by love and approval” (136 ).pParaphr
76、asing: Despite pleasant depictions of home life in art, the fact remains that for most Seventeenth-century Dutch women, the home represented a curtailment of some degree of independence. Art historian Laurinda Dixon argues that the home actually imprisoned most women. She adds that this prison was m
77、ade attractive by three things: the prescriptions of doctors of the day against idleness, the praise given diligent housewives, and the romantic ideal based on love and respect (136). 10.RevisingpTitle: Is my title consistent with the content of my paper?pIntroduction: Do I appropriately introduce m
78、y review?pThesis: Does my review have a clear claim?pBody: Is the organization clear? Have I provided headings?pTopic sentences: Have I clearly indicated the major idea(s) of each paragraph?pTransitions: Does my writing flow?pConclusion: Do I provide sufficient closure? (see p. 10)pSpelling and Gram
79、mar: Are there any major spelling or grammatical mistakes?Summary:WritingaLiteratureReviewpAs you read, try to see the “big picture”your literature review should provide an overview of the state of research.pInclude only those source materials that help you shape your argument. Resist the temptation to include everything youve read!pBalance summary and analysis as you write.pKeep in mind your purpose for writing:nHow will this review benefit readers?nHow does this review contribute to your study?pBe meticulous about citations. 结束语结束语谢谢大家聆听！谢谢大家聆听！85
