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1、Refutation WhatHowExampleRefutationisthepartofanargumentwhereinaspeakerorwriteranticipatesandcountersopposingpointsofview.InformallogicAnobjection(alsocalledexpostulationorrefutation),isareasonarguingagainstpremise,lemma,ormaincontention.DefinitionGreco-RomansOriginTruthdoesnotfearcontention.Themore
2、thetruthisdebated,thecleareritbecomes.Plato&AristotlePythagoreanschoolStoicismAristotlesschoolConvinceyouraudiencethattheothersideiswrong.Convinceyouraudiencethatyoursideisright.GoalRefutetheclaimTypesRefutetheevidenceRefutethereasoningRelationshipIndirectrefutationRefutereasoningRefuteevidenceDirec
3、trefutationRefutetheclaimStructureComparisonwithothersArgumentRefutationPersuasionComparisonExerciseTherefutationisasuccessorfailure?Conversation1.Tom:Imsuregladmynephewgotanewcar.Thatotheronehewasdrivinghadterriblebrakesandnowindshieldwipers.Jerry:Yournephewdidntgetanewcar.Thatcaryouseehimdrivingis
4、hisroommates.(Success)Conversation2.Susan:Portlandisabout400milesfromChico.Bob:No,itsnot.Its389miles.(Failure)Conversation3.Fred:Angelsdontexist.Donna:Suretheydo.Lookatallthebookswrittenaboutangelsthatarebestsellers!Lookatthefaiththatsomanypeopleplaceinangels!Lookatallthegreatworksofartthatdealwitha
5、ngels!Howcanyoupossiblequestionthesincereconvictionsofsomanypeople?(Failure)Conversation4.Don:ConventionalweaponscausedmuchmoredamageinWorldWarIIthanatomicweapons.Martha:Thatsimpossible.Everyoneknowsthatatomicbombscausemoredamagethanconversationalbombs.(Failure)http:/ to write IntroductionHow to wri
6、te BodyHow to write Conclusion How wewrite write RefutationRefutation1.Theintroductionofrefutationessayshouldincludethefollowing:Background;Asummaryoftheargumentyouarerefuting;Anacknowledgeofthestrengthsoftheargument,ifany;Theaspectsoftheargumentthatyoubelieveareflawed;How toWrite Write Introduction
7、How toWrite Write Introduction2.BecharmingYoucanwintheattentionandgoodwillofyourreadersbytellinganinterestingstory,quotingagoodcommentontheissue.Youshouldavoidpomposity,andshowconcernforyourreaders.Youshouldpresentyourselfasfair-mindedandgood-natured.How to write IntroductionHow to write BodyHow to
8、write Conclusion How wewrite write RefutationRefutationWhat opposing arguments can be attackedThree types of organizationFour steps in refutationFour steps in refutationLanguage of refutationHowtoWritebodyWhat Opposing Arguments Can be AttackedHowtoWritebodyArgumentsaretheresultofreasoningaboutevide
9、nceAttacksonevidenceAttacksonreasoningAttacksonclaimsTwobroadtestsofevidenceare:Istheevidencecorrect?Istheevidenceadequatetoprovetheargument?AttacksOnevidenceThenextMoreparticularcriteriafortestingevidence1.So-calledAuthorityleansonthepopularityofsomeonewhomayhavelittleknowledgeoftheissueorproduct.2
10、.Example:3.CNNs Lou Dobbs, regularly uses a figure of CNNs Lou Dobbs, regularly uses a figure of 20 million when discussing the number of 20 million when discussing the number of illegal aliens on his broadcast Lou Dobbs illegal aliens on his broadcast Lou Dobbs Tonight.“ Tonight.“ HoweverHowever, t
11、he PEW Center, a more , the PEW Center, a more objective source places the number at 11 objective source places the number at 11 million. million. AttacksOnevidence222.Flawedstatisticaldatasmallsampleandspecialsample;thetotalnumberofsamplesisunknown;3.Example:4.There were 13 gun-related fatalities a
12、mong here were 13 gun-related fatalities among children every day, children every day, butbut didnt tell the exact didnt tell the exact age range.age range.5.AttacksOnevidence233.Ignorethechangeofconditionswithoutconsideringthechangeoftime,spaceandotherexternalconditionswhichmayleadtothealterationof
13、evidence.4.5.Example:6.ConventionalweaponscausedmuchmoredamageinworldWarIIthanatomicweapons,soconventionalweaponsaremorelethal.However,itsundertwodifferentcircumstances.AttacksOnevidence244.Suppressedevidencehidesomeaspectswhichisagainsttheclaim5.Example:6.6. An advertisement claims a particular An
14、advertisement claims a particular car has more horsepower and 0-60 speed, car has more horsepower and 0-60 speed, but but fails to mention it also does worse in crash fails to mention it also does worse in crash tests, and has worse reliability.tests, and has worse reliability.AttacksOnevidence255.5
15、.Self-contradictoryevidenceSelf-contradictoryevidenceIfyousayorwritesomethingthatisself-contradictory,youIfyousayorwritesomethingthatisself-contradictory,youmaketwostatementswhichcannotbothbetrue.maketwostatementswhichcannotbothbetrue.Example:Example: Bush has blocked prescription drug imports from
16、Bush has blocked prescription drug imports from Bush has blocked prescription drug imports from Bush has blocked prescription drug imports from Canada over safety concerns, Canada over safety concerns, Canada over safety concerns, Canada over safety concerns, but but but but he also said the he also
17、 said the he also said the he also said the U.S. could rely on Canada for more flu vaccine.U.S. could rely on Canada for more flu vaccine.U.S. could rely on Canada for more flu vaccine.U.S. could rely on Canada for more flu vaccine.AttacksOnevidence266.Negativeevidencetheevidenceisnotrightormoralina
18、civilizedsociety,isevil-minded,immatureviciousorharmful,issexistordiscriminatory,orculturallyunacceptable.7.Example:8.ItsnotnecessarytoabolishdeathpenaltyinChinabecausethepopulationofChinaissolarge.However,itsevil!AttacksOnevidence277.Atypicalevidencetheevidenceisnottypicaltoprovetheclaim8.Example:9
19、.Anadforamiracledietofferstestimonialsasproof,butfailstoprovideacontrolledclinicalstudytoprovethedietreallyworks.AttacksOnevidence28What Opposing Arguments Can be AttackedHowtoWritebodyArgumentsaretheresultofreasoningaboutevidenceAttacksonevidenceAttacksonreasoningAttacksonclaims291.1.Hasty generali
20、zations Hasty generalizations Arrivingataconclusionwithoutenoughevidence.2.Example: Example: 3.3. Li Hua and Wang Ping, who are two Li Hua and Wang Ping, who are two Asian-American students, do well in math, so Asian-American students, do well in math, so all all Asian-Americanstudentsarebetterinmat
21、h.AttacksOnreasoning2.BandwagonThinkingClaimingthatmostpeopleagreesoitmustberight.3.Example:4. Its widely accepted that French people Its widely accepted that French people are more romantic, so French must be romantic.are more romantic, so French must be romantic.AttacksOnreasoning313.Singlecause-e
22、ffectClaimingthatonlyoneeventcausedanother.4.Example:5.WhenIsatdownatthecomputeritstoppedworking,soImusthavedonesomethingwrong.AttacksOnreasoning324.NoconnectionThecausedoesnotrelatetotheeffect.5.Example:6.LetsnottakeXiaoJingtengonourpicnic.Everytimewetakehimoutwithus,itrains.AttacksOnreasoning335.E
23、ither/OrSuggestingonlytwoalternativeswhiletheissuemaybemuchmorecomplex.6.Example:7.Bush: “either youre for America or youre Bush: “either youre for America or youre for the terrorists”for the terrorists”AttacksOnreasoning346.CircularReasoningRestatingindifferentwordswhathasalreadybeenstated.7.Exampl
24、e:8.Xiaomingisabachelorbecausehehasntgotmarried.AttacksOnreasoning357.FalseAnalogyTheargumentassertsthatiffactsrelatingtoAandfactsrelatingtoBarealikeinsomeessentialrespects,theywillbealikeinanother,orother,essentialrespects.8.Example:9.Studentsshouldbeallowedtolookattheirtextbooksduringexaminations.
25、Afterall,surgeonshaveX-raystoguidethemduringanoperation,lawyershavebriefstoguidethemduringatrial,carpentershaveblueprintstoguidethemwhentheyarebuildingahouse.AttacksOnreasoning361.Sequentialattack（argument1-argument2-argument3）What opposing arguments can be attackedThree types of organizationFour st
26、eps in refutationLanguage of refutationHow weWrite bodyWrite body372.PrimaryandsecondaryattacksThree types of organizationHow weWrite bodyWrite bodyrefutationofprimaryargumentrefutationofsecondaryargument383.ConcessiontypeattackAisfalseevenifAisTrueBisfalseEvenifA&BistrueCisfalseNottomentionthatA&Ba
27、reallfalseThree types of organizationWrite bodyWrite bodyHow weTomakethebodypartcoherentandconsistentRebuttalofAisnotnecessarilytobethefirst,butitscriticaltofindoutthelogicalconnectioninthewholeoriginalarticletoberefutedVideoExamplesVideo1Video2Write bodyWrite bodyHow weThree types of organization40
28、1.Theargumenttoberefutedanditsrelationshiptothecaseasawhole.How weWrite bodyWrite bodyExample:Indevelopinganeedforpricecontrols,theeffectofinflationhasbeeninjurioustothewelfareoftheAmericanlaborer.Now,ifthisweretrue,theaffirmativewouldindeedhaveastrongargument.What opposing arguments can be attacked
29、Three types of organizationFour steps in refutationFour steps in refutationLanguage of refutation412.Statehowyouwillrefutetheargument.Four steps in refutationHow weWrite bodyWrite bodyExample:However,itcanbedemonstratedthattheaffirmativehasreachedanerroneousconclusionbyneglectingthemostrelevantaspec
30、tsoftheUnitedStateseconomicpicture.423.Refutationwithsupportingevidence.Example:HastheUnitedStateslaborerbeenhurtbyinflation?Onthecontrary,accordingtotheSecretaryoftheTreasury,hisbuyingpowerhasgoneupfortypercentinthepasttwentyyears,andaccordingtoastudyconductedbythelabororganizationsthemselves(AFL-C
31、IOreport),“Thelaborer,eventhoughpriceshavegoneup,stillisinapositiontobuymoreofthedesiredgoodsonthemarketthaneverbefore.”Four steps in refutationHow weWrite bodyWrite body434.Theeffectoftherefutationandtransitiontocontinuedrefutation.Example:Thusweseethattheaffirmativeneedargument,anappealtothewelfar
32、eoflabor,isrefutedbythelaborleadersthemselves.Now,letusproceedtotheirotherneedargumentstoseeiftheyarerealorlargelyimaginary.Four steps in refutationHow weWrite bodyWrite body44Makethemeansofcommunication-language-asclearaspossible.AvoidvaguetermsUsethevocabularyofdebatebyreferringtoissues,arguments,
33、andevidence.How weWrite bodyWrite bodyWhat opposing arguments can be attackedThree types of organizationFour steps in refutationFour steps in refutationLanguage of refutation45【Avoid】Thepointhasbeenbroughtup.【Because】Vague.Callingeverythingapoint,whetheritisanissue,andargument,orevidence,isprobablyt
34、hemostcommonlanguageerrorindebate.Byitselfitisvague;whenitisoveruseditleadstototalconfusion.【Useinstead】“Thecontentionofworkabilityhasbeenattackedwiththeargumentthat”LanguageofrefutationHow weWrite bodyWrite body46【Avoid】“Asourquoteshaveproved”【Because】Vague.Beconcretebymakingspecificreferences.【Use
35、instead】“Ontheotherhand,bothProfessorX,ofWhiteUniversity,andtheDirectoroftheNationalScienceFoundationhaveproved”LanguageofrefutationHow weWrite bodyWrite body【Avoid】“Theysaid”or“Wesaid”【Because】Vagueandclumsy.【Useinstead】“Thefirstaffirmativespeakerasserted”or“MissSmith,inherfirstconstructivespeech”L
36、anguageofrefutationHow weWrite bodyWrite body【Avoid】“Westandon”【Because】Clumsy.【Useinstead】“Oursupportofthiscontentionhasbeen”LanguageofrefutationHow weWrite bodyWrite body【Avoid】“Whereistheirproof?”and“Wehaveofferedproof.”【Because】Clumsyanderroneous.Proofisoftenconfusedwithevidence.【Useinstead】“Whe
37、reisthesupportingevidencetoprove”and“Wehaveofferedevidencetosupport”LanguageofrefutationHow weWrite bodyWrite bodyBonus!LanguageofrefutationHow weWrite bodyWrite bodyTypicallanguageusedinrefutationAlthoughitiscommonlyheldthatsuccesswillbringpeoplemoneyandstatus,itisunlikelytobetruethatitwillbeadesir
38、ablegoalforanyone.Consideringthegreatstresstheyhavetolivewith,andtheirshorterlifespans,greaterloneliness,andrelativeincapacityforcommunityorloveitentails,itisconceivablethatnoteveryonefindsanenterpriserequiringsuchsacrificeisworthwhatitcosts.虽然大多数人认为成功能给人带来金钱和地位，但是每个人都渴望成功却不一定是事实。想一想为了成功所要承受的紧张压力，寿命
39、的可能缩短，巨大的孤独，不能有常人的感情交流和爱情。可以想象，不是所有的人都认为为追求一个目标付出这么多的牺牲是值得的Itisprobablytruethatinstitutingsanctionsmaysignificantlyreducethefrequencyofwrongspeechesoncampus,butonevitalpointisbeingleftoutofourthinking:thesemeasuresposeaseriousthreattotheveryideaoftheuniversityandthespiritofacademicfreedom.采取制裁措施可能会显
40、著地减少校园的“错误”言论，但是有一点我们没有考虑进去：这些措施对大学的本身宗旨以及学术自由精神构成了威胁。TypicallanguageusedinrefutationOnthesurface,thecommentsmadebymenaboutwomensabilitiesseemreasonable.Butoncloseexamination,thecommentsrevealtherealcontemptthatmenfeelforwomenandthebasichostilitythatmenhavetowardwomen.表面上，男人对妇女的能力所作的评论似乎有点道理，但仔细检查一下
41、，这个评论反映了男人对妇女的真正蔑视和对妇女的态度基本上是对立的。TypicallanguageusedinrefutationSomepeoplesuggestthatamanagerorahighexecutivecanspeakwellandlogicallybecauseoftheopportunitiesofhisposition.Thatisputtingthecartbeforethehorse.Moreoftenthannot,quitethereverseistrue.Itishisskillinwordsthathelpshimtogethisjob.Thatis,ifyo
42、uconsciouslyincreaseyourvocabularyyouwillunconsciouslyraiseyourselftoamoreimportantstationinlife.Ofcourse,thenewandhigherpositionyouhavewonwill,inturn,giveyouabetteropportunityforfurtherenrichingyourlanguage.Itisabeautifulandsuccessfulcycle.有的人说一个经理或一个高级管理人员之所以口才好，讲话有逻辑是因为他的职位给他创造了这样的条件。这就有点本末倒置了。许多
43、情况下，事实正好相反。他的词语能力正好帮助他获得了他的这个职位。也就是说如果你注意扩大你的词汇，你就会在无意中提高生活中的地位。当然你得到的一个新的更重要的职位会反过来为你进一步丰富你的语言创造好的条件。这是一个良性的成功的循环。TypicallanguageusedinrefutationHow to write IntroductionHow to write BodyHow to write Conclusion How wewrite write RefutationRefutationHow towriteconclusionHowtowriteconclusiona)Restate
44、yourthesisindifferentwaysb)Lookintothefuturec)Makefunofyouropponentsd)SummarizeyourmajorpointsifyourpaperislongTipsforYourEssayc)Dontmakeupevidenced)Citeyoursourcese)Makeanoutlinea)Avoidemotionallanguageb)KnowthedifferencebetweenalogicalconclusionandanemotionalpointofviewWhatourcustomerssayWhatHowEx
45、ampleToo muchConcepts!Concepts! I I strike!strike!P PTA sample essayA sample essaysoThe next oneThe next one is is61Natureexamineswhetherandhowanathletesperformancehistoryandthelimitsofhumanphysiologycouldbeusedtocatchdopers.sampleessaylYesperformancewasanomalous(异常)withanimprovementabout7seconds(6.
46、72s).lAcleandrugtestduringcompetitioncouldnotruleoutthepossibilityofdoping(兴奋剂).lPerformancecouldbeusedtonabdopers.lAnathletewillbedisciplinedsimplyforperformingtoowell.OUTLINEOFREFUTATIONlIntroductionlBody1.Refute:thedataof“7seconds”2.Refute:“anomalous”improvement3.Refute:compareRyanLochteslast50me
47、trestoYes4.Refute:anotherexampleofcherry-picking5.Refute:adrugtestcannotruleoutthepossibilityofdoping6.Refute:Callawayfailedtomentionout-of-competitiondrugtestlConclusionIntroduction partFROM LAI JIANG, Department of Chemistry, University of PennsylvaniaItisashametoseeNaturewhichnearlyallscientists,
48、includingmyself,regardasoneofthemostprestigiousandinfluentialphysical-sciencemagazinespublishathinlyveiledbiasedarticlelikethis.Granted,thisisnotapeer-reviewed scientific article and did not go through thescrutinyofpickingreferees.Buttoserveasachannelforthegeneralpopulacetobeintouchwithandappreciate
49、science,theauthorsandeditorsshouldatleastpresentthereaderswithfactswithinthepropercontext,whichtheyblatantlyfailedtodo.Background/HookBody part First,toidentifyYesperformanceincrease,EwenCallawaycomparedherOlympic400-metreIMtimewithherperformanceattheWorldChampionshipsin2011(4:28.43and4:35.15,respec
50、tively)andconcludedthatshehadan“anomalous”improvementofaround7seconds(6.72s).Infact,herpreviouspersonalbestwas4:33.79attheAsianGamesin2010.Thisleadstoanimprovementof5.38seconds.Inasportingeventinwhich0.1scanbethedifferencebetweenthegoldandsilvermedal,Iseenoreasonfor5.38stobetreatedas7s. Reviewthewro
51、ngfactsListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponentscasep1Body part Second,aspreviouslypointedout,Yeisonly16yearsoldandherbodyisstilldeveloping.Betteringoneselfby5secondsovertwoyearsmayseemimpossibleforanadultswimmer,butitcertainlyhappensamongyoungsters.AninterviewwithAustraliangoldmedallis
52、tIanThorperevealedthathis400-metrefreestyletimeimprovedby5secondsbetweentheagesof15and16.Forregularpeople,includingCallaway,itmaybehardtoimaginewhataneliteswimmercanachieveasheorshematuresandundergoesscientificandpersistenttraining.Butjumpingtotheconclusionthatitis“anomalous”basedonOhthatssotoughIca
53、nnotimagineitisrealishardlysound.ListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponentscasep2Body partThird,tocompareRyanLochteslast50metrestoYesisatextbookexampleofcherry-pickingyourdata.Yes,LochtewasslowerthanYeinthelast50metres,butLochtehadahugeleadinthefirst300metres,sohechosenottopushhimselftoo
54、hardandtoconservehisenergyforlater.Ye,ontheotherhand,wastrailingbehindafterthefirst300metresandreliedonfreestyle,inwhichshehasanedge,towintherace.Failingtomentionthisstrategicdifference,aswellasthefactthatLochteis23.25secondsfaster(4:05.18)thanYeoverall,createstheillusionthatawomanswamfasterthantheb
55、estmaninthesamesport,whichsoundsimpossible.Puttingasidethegenderargument,Ibelievethisisstillaleadingquestionthatimpliestothereaderthatthereissomethingfishygoingon.cherry-pickingListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponentscasep3Body partFourthisanotherexampleofcherry-picking.Inthesameevent,
56、therearefourmaleswimmerswhoswamfasterthanbothLochter(29.10s)andYe(28.93s)inthefinal50metres:KosukeHagino(28.52s),MichaelPhelps(28.44s),YuyaHorihata(27.87s)andThomasFraser-Holmes(28.35s).Asitturnsout,ifwearejusttalkingaboutthelast50metresina400-metreIM,LochterisnottheexampleIwouldhaveusedifIweretheau
57、thor.WhatkindofscientificrigorousnessisCallawaytryingtodemonstratehere?IsitlogicalthatifLochteristhechampion,weshouldassumethatheleadsineverysplit?Thatwouldbeaterriblewaytoteachthepublichowscienceworks.cherry-pickingListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponentscasep4Body partFifthistheissue
58、Iopposethemost.CallawayquotesRossTuckerandimpliesthatadrugtestcannotruleoutthepossibilityofdoping.Anyonewhohastakenquantum101willtellyouthateverythingisprobabilisticinnature,andsothereisaprobabilitythatthedruginanathletessystemcouldtunneloutrightatthemomentofthetest.Aslightchanceitmaybe,butshouldwed
59、isregardalltestresultsbecauseofit?Letsbepracticalandreasonable,andacceptthattheWorldAnti-Dopingagency(WADA)iscompetentatitsjob.Yesurinesamplewillbestoredforeightyearsafterthecontestforfuturetestingastechnologyadvances.Innocentuntilprovenguilty,shouldntitbe?FalseauthorityYourargumentEffectofyourrefut
60、ationonopponentscasep5Body partSixth,andthelastpointIwouldliketomake,isthattheout-of-competitiondrugtestisalreadyineffect,whichCallawayfailedtomention.AsnotedinthepresidentofWADAspressrelease,drugtestingforOlympiansbeganatleastsixmonthsbeforetheopeningoftheLondonOlympics.Furthermore,107athleteshaveb
61、eenbannedfromthisOlympicsfordoping.Thatmaybethereasonthat“everyonewillpassattheOlympicgames.Hardlyanyonefailsincompetitiontesting”thosewhodiddopehavealreadybeencaughtandsanctioned.Callawayisfreetosuggestthataplayercouldhavedopedbeforehandandfooledthetestatthegame,butthispossibilityiscertainlyruledou
62、tforYe.IgnorethequestionListfactsYourargumentEffectofyourrefutationonopponentscasep6Conclusion partOverall,eventhoughCallawaydidnotfalsifyanydata,hedid(intentionallyornot)cherry-pickdatathat,inmyview,arefartoosuggestivetobefairandunbiased.Ifyouwanttocoverastoryofasuspecteddopingfromascientificpointo
63、fview,beimpartialandprovideallthefactsforthereadertojudge.Youareentitledtoyourinterpretationofthefacts,andtheexpressionthereofinyourpiece,explicitlyorotherwise,butshowingonlyevidencethatfavoursyourargumentishardlygoodscienceorjournalism.SuchanarticleinajournalsuchasNatureisnotanappropriateexampleofhowscientificresearchorreportingshouldbedone.RestartyourthesisindifferentwaysTired?Thank you!Thatsall
