自考00832英语词汇学考试重点精华整理【精选文档】

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1、English Lexicology(English Lexicology(英语词汇学）英语词汇学）1。English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of Englishwords and word equivalents, their semantic structures， relations, historical development,formation and usages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构， 其语义结构、关系、历史发展、形

2、成和用法.2。English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学）,semantics（语义学)， etymology(词源学)，stylistics（文体论） andlexicography（词典学)Chapter 1-Basic concepts of words and vocabularyChapter 1-Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.Word1.Word（词的定义）（词的定义）: : A word is a minim

3、al free form of a language that has a given sound andmeaning and syntactic function。 （1） a minimal free form of a language (2） a sound unity (3)a unitof meaning （4)a form that can function alone in a sentence词语是语言最小的自由形式,拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。2.Sound and meaning2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）（声音与意义）: almost a

4、rbitrary， “no logical relationship between thesound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”3 3。 Sound and formSound and form （读音和形式）（读音和形式） :不统一的四个原因(1） the English alphabet was adopted fromthe Romans， which does not have a separate letter to represent each other (2

5、)the pronunciation haschanged more rapidly than spelling over the years(3 ）some of the difference were created by theearly scribes(4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary（5)printing、standardization、dictionaryOld English，The speech of the time was represented very

6、 much more faithfully in writing thanit is today。 古代英语中的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语The written form of English is an imperfect representation of the spoken form 。英语的书写是发音形式不完善的代表4.What is vocabulary?（1)Total number of the words in a language一个语言的单词综合(2）Words used in a particular historical period 特殊历史时期使用的单词(3）A

7、ll the words of a dialect,a book ，a discipline。 。.某个方言，书籍，学科中的所有单词5。 Classification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stocknonbasic vocabularyBy notion：content wordsfunctional wordsBy origin：native wordsborrowed words6。 The basic word stock(The basic word stock( 基本词汇基本词汇) )： is the founda

8、tion of the vocabulary accumulated overcenturies and forms the common core of the language。 Though it constitute a small percentage ofthe EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary。 基础词是几世纪积累的词汇的基础，构成语言的核心。尽管基础词占英语词汇比例小，它仍然是最重要的组成部分。7。 The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(The Fundam

9、ental Features of the Basic Word Stock( 基本词汇的基本特征基本词汇的基本特征) ):1）All-National character（全民通用性 most important)2）Stability(相对稳定性 relative）3）Productivity（多产性 are mostly root words or monosyllabic words）4）Polysemy（多义性）5）Collocability（可搭配性）8。 nonbasic vocabularynonbasic vocabulary(1）Terminology(术语)(2）Jarg

10、on（行话）（3）slang（俚语） (4）Argot（暗语） （5）Dialectal words（方言） （6) Archaisms（古语） （7） Neologisms(新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on newmeanings。(email）9. Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas asin medicine、

11、in mathematics、in music、in education。 包括特定学科的技术术语和学术领域Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences,trades and professions communicate among themselves用于特定的词汇，通过特定艺术，科学 ,商业和专业领域的成员在彼此之间交流Slang belongs to the substandard language ,a category that seems to

12、 stand between thestandard general words includinginformal ones available to everyone and ingroup wordslike cant， jargon, , and argot 俚语粗话属于低等语言，处在标准通用语言， （包括每人用的非正式词汇）和团体内部语言包括cant(任何下等团体的行话)，jargons,argot10。 slang is colourful， blunt, expressive and impressive俚语生动，直率,印象深刻而且感人11. Certain words are

13、labeled slang not because their appearance or pronunciation but because oftheir usage 特定词被标示为“俚语不是因为他们的写法和发音，而是因为他们的用法12。 Content words/notional words实词Content words denote clear notions and thus are known asnotionalnotional words. They include nouns，verbs， adjectives， adverbs and numerals 内容词表示清楚的概

14、念，因为被认为是概念词。他们包括名词，动词。形容词,副词和数词13。 functional words/empty words虚词Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore， they are also called empty words.As their chief function is to express the relation between notions， the relation between words aswell as between sentences, they are known a

15、s form words。 Prepositions， conjunctions,auxiliaries and articles belong to this category 。 功能词没有他们自己的概念。因此,他们也称作“空词”。由于他们的主要功能是去表达概念间的关系,词语间和句子间的关系，他们被认为是“结构词”。介词，连词，辅助词和冠词属于这一类14.区别：Content words， which constitute the main body of the English vocabulary， are numerous, andthe number is ever growing

16、 whereas functional words, which make up a very small number of thevocabulary， remain stable。 However, functional words do far more work of expression inEnglish on average than content words 内容词，构成了英语词汇的主体,是数量多的。并且那数量还在增长,然而，功能词，只占词汇的很少一部分，保持稳定。然而，功能词比内容词在表达上做了更多的工作15. Native words：1。 Neutral in sty

17、le 风格中性 2. Frequent in use 使用频繁（1）Words of AngloSaxon origin are small in number， amounting to roughly 50，000 to60，000 盎格鲁撒克逊源头词数量很少，大约在50000 到 60000 之间(2)they form the mainstream of the basic word stock 他们构成了基本词汇的主流（3）stand at the core of the language处在语言的核心16。 Words taken over from foreign languag

18、es are known as borrowed wordsborrowed words or loan wordsloan words orborrowingsborrowings in simple terms 从外国带来的词被认为是“借词“借代词或者“所借的17。 Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the Englishlanguage. 同化词是过去早期借词，现在很好的同化进了英语Aliens are borrowed words which have retained

19、 their original pronunciation and spelling非同化词是保留了原始发音和拼写的借词Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the Englishlanguage but modelled on the patterns taken from another language.翻译借词是从英语中的现有材料中取材构成,但是模仿其他语言的构成方式。Semantic-loans。 Words of this category are not b

20、orrowed with reference to the form. But theirmeanings are borrowed. 借义词这类词不是参考形式借来,但是他们的意义是借来的。Chapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyChapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary1.The English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles 。 英语不是英国群岛上原住民

21、的语言。2. The Indo-European Language Family( The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系）印欧语系）The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8 大印欧语群）The Eastern set:(1）The Baltoslavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族)：Prussian, Lithuanian， Polish, Czech，Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian普鲁士语,立陶宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语,斯洛文尼亚语，俄

22、语(2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度伊朗语族） ：Persian, Bengali， Hindi， Romany 波斯语，孟加拉语，印地语，吉普赛语（3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族)：Armenian.(4）The Albanian Group(阿尔巴尼亚语族） ：Albanian.The Western set：（5）The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族)：Greek。（6)The Italian Group（意大利语族 ):Latin ,Romance languages(French，Italian，Spanish,portugu

23、ese，Romanian） etc. 五种拉丁语言，就是葡萄牙语,西班牙语,法语，意大利语，罗马尼亚语都属于意大利语系(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族） ：Scottish, Irish， Welsh， Breton， etc 苏格兰语,爱尔兰语，威尔士语，布里多尼语等(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族)：German， Dutch， Flemish and English，Scandinavian(Norwegian， Icelandic， Danish andSwedish） etc. ，德语，荷兰语，弗兰德语和英语 （挪威语， 冰岛语，丹麦语和瑞典语

24、）这些都被称作斯堪的纳维亚语言3.A historical overview of the English V ocabulary（1)The first inhabitants were Celts。 Their languages were Celtic。 现在所指最早的居民是凯尔特人,他们的语言仍然是印欧语系的另一分支凯尔特语的方言（2)The second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions. In 55-54B.C., the Romans invaded the British Isl

25、es 英国的第二种主要语言是罗马军团的拉丁语，在公元前 55 到 54 年，罗马人入侵英伦群岛（3）Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary 凯尔特语只对英语词汇有很小的贡献4。 Old English (4501150） (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000)= AngloSaxon（1）Latin-speaking Roman missionaries under came to spread Christianity in Britain at theend of the 6th c

26、entury. 在 6 世纪末期，拉丁语的罗马传教士来传播基督教(2)users of Old English did not borrow as heavily from Latin or other languages in this periodas they did later古代英语的使用者并不像他们后来做的那样大量从拉丁和其他语言借词（3） The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.handbook通常情况用组合两个本地词的形式来创造新词(4） many Scandinavia

27、n words came into the English language许多斯堪的纳维亚词汇进入了英语（5)it was a high inflected language with complex endings 它是高度转折的语言正象现代的德语5.Middle English （11501500):retaines much fewer inflections（1） The Norman conquest started a continual flow of French words into English诺曼征服开始了法国词汇不断进入英语的洪流（2)The situation o

28、f three languages(Latin， French,English） existing simultaneously continuedfor over a century三种语言并存的情况存在了一百多年(3）Britain had trade relations with the low countries，especially Holland 英国和低等国家有贸易关系，特别是荷兰（4）Middle English retained much fewer inflections中世纪英语保留更少的转折If we say that Old English was a languag

29、e of full endings，Middle English was one of leveledendings. 如果我们说老英语是一种拥有完整结尾的语言,中世纪英语是一个水平结尾。6。Modern English （1500up to now): （1）Early（1500-1700） （2）late （1700up to thepresent）(1） In the early period of Modern English， known as the Renaissance， many new words takenby scholars from Latin and Greek

30、entered into English许多是学者从拉丁文和希腊文中提取（2）Latinate flavour of Modern English现代英语的拉丁风格。（3）In the mid-seventeenth century，English absorbed words from all major languages of theworld 在十七世纪中期，英语从所有世界的主要语言中吸收词汇。（4） Since the beginning of 20th century， more words are created by means of wordformation从本世纪初开始，

31、更多的词通过构词法被创造出来English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.英语已经由合成语言（古代英语)进化为现代分析语言7. Growth of Present-day English V ocabulary three main sources：（1）the rapid development of modern science and technology （45 ）现代科学和技术的迅猛发展（2)social, economic and politic

32、al changes(11 % ）社会，经济和政治的变化(3)the influence of other cultures and languages（ 24 ）其它文化和语言的影响8.Modes of Vocabulary Development（1）Creations: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials， namelyroots ， affixes and other elements。 创造是指新词的构成通过使用现有的材料,也就是说，词根，词缀和其他元素。(2)Se

33、mantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need。 意义改变意味着一个老的形式获取新含义以便去应对新的需要。（3） Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times.借词曾经在词汇的发展中扮演了至关重要的角色，特别是在早期。（4）Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to

34、the growth of English vocabularythough quite insignificant. 恢复的古词或者废弃的词也对英语词汇的成长做出了贡献。 尽管收效甚微。Chapter 3 Word Formation IChapter 3 Word Formation I概念：词素、语素、语素变体概念：词素、语素、语素变体1.The minimal meaningful units are known asmorphemes.morphemes.the morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition

35、of words。最小的意义单位叫做“词素”。词素是“词语组成中最小的功能单位。2。 Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known asmorphs.morphs.词素是抽象的单位,在话语中被认知通过分开的单位，这单位叫做“语素”。They are actual spoken ， minimal carriers of meaning.它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体.The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a p

36、hone.语素是一个音素发音的词素。3。 Morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in asentence 。they are called monomorphemicmonomorphemic words。语素与词相同，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用.这种词叫做单一语素词4。 Morphemes which are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word.S

37、uch alternative morphs are known asallomorphsallomorphs。一些词素被按照语素在其中排列而认识，那些替换的语素被称为语素变体。5.the morpheme of plurality |-s ：tpk 后面（s） 、dbgl 后面（-z） 、iz 是在 sz J， 3, 3, tj， C13C13之后the past tense 过去形式simple present 一般现在时possessive 所有格 comparative orsuperlative degrees 比较级和最高级6.（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素） ： h

38、ave complete meaning in themselves and can be used asfree grammatical units in sentences。 A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (which areindependent of other morphemes are considered to be free ）. 不依靠其他语素的语素是自由语素。这些语素自己有完整的意义可以在句子中当作自由的语法单位来使用。（2)Bound Morphemes （粘着语素） ： A bound morpheme

39、 is one that cannot stand by itself.Theyare bound to other morphemes to form words 。 Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derivedwords. +例子例子 不能作为独立词出现的语素是粘连语素。 这样称呼因为它们粘连其他语素去构成单词。粘连语素主要出现在派生词中。7. -ist“的实践者”； al 表示“的，关于的”， -ize 表示使成为；ation 表示： “动作”,“过程， -ic与有关的8. Bound Morpheme includes two types：

40、（1) bound root（粘附词根） +例子例子(2)Affix(词缀）（1)a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a freeroot。 Unlike a free root， it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes tomake words. 一个粘连词根是词中承担基础意义的部分,如同自由根词。和自由根词不同的是,他是一个粘连形式不得不与其他词素组合来构成单词.In Englis

41、h, bound roots are either Latin or Greek 。 Although they are limited in number， theirproductive power is amazing。（2)Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.词缀是附属在单词上或者单词元素上以修改词语意义和功能的结构。9. Affixes can be put into two groups：1)Inflectional affixes （

42、屈折词缀）:affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammaticalrelationships are inflectional，thus known as inflectional morphemes。 是附加在词尾用来表示屈折关系，因此被称为“屈折词素”。2）Derivational affixes(派生词缀） ： derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes tocreate new words. 派生词缀是加在其他语素上建立新词的词缀。 派生词缀可以分为

43、前缀和后缀。Prefixes come before the word and the suffixes after the word10. A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss ofidentity. 词根是一个词的基础形式不能在没有丧失定义的前提下继续分解。In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology ， a root is that part of a wordform thatremains

44、when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been re moved。 根据派生和屈折语形学，“一个词根是词语中去除所有屈折词缀和派生词缀都去除剩下的部分。11。A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 词干可以被定义为任何词缀都能够添加的形式。Chapter 4 Word-Formation IIChapter 4 Word-Formation II（构词法（构词法) )1。The expansion of vocabula

45、ry in modern English depends chiefly on word formation 现代英语中词汇的扩张只要依靠构词法2. 构词法分类:affixation （30%-40%)词缀法（ 30 % 40 )compounding (28%30)复合法( 28 % 30 )conversion (26%）转化法( 26 ）shortening (8%-10%)缩略法 （ 8 % -10 ）blending and other means (15）拼缀法和其他方法（ 1 %-5 ）3. Affixation is generally defined as the forma

46、tion of words by adding word-forming orderivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation,derivation, for new words created inthis way are derived from old forms。 The words formed in this way are called derivativesderivatives。 词缀法通常被认为是通过添加词形或者派生词缀到词干以构成新词的方法。 这个过程也被称作“派生”，因为通过这

47、种方式创造的新词是从旧词派生而来。通过这种方式造出的词叫做“派生词”.4。 affixation falls into two subclasses:prefixationprefixation and suffixationsuffixation。（1)Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems。 Prefixes do notgenerally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.前缀法通过给词干加前缀来构成

48、新词.前缀通常不改变词干的词类但是只改变它的意思。The majority of prefixes are characterized by their non-class-changing nature。 Their chieffunction is to change meanings of the stems 。 前缀的大多数都以不改变词类的特点为特征。它们的主要功能是改变词干的意义。（2）Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixeswhich primaril

49、y change the meaning of the stem, suffixes have only a small semantic role, theirprimary function being to change the grammatical function of stems 。 后缀法是通过添加后缀到词干来构成新词的方法。不象前缀主要改变词干的意思，后缀只有一个很小的意义作用,它们的主要作用是改变词干的语法功能。we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes， verb suffixes,

50、adjectivesuffixes我们可以根据语法基础将后缀分为名词后缀，动词后缀，形容词后缀，等等后缀的类别 Deverbal 动词派生 Denominal 名词派生 需要记需要记5。 Compounding, also called composition ， is the formation of new words by joining two ormore stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. 复合词也叫组合词，是通过连接两个以上词干构成新词的方式。通过这样的方式构成的词叫复合词。三个特征：(1）Phonetic

51、features(exceptions:sociolinguistics，psycho-analysis）（2）Semantic features:a lot of compounds are transparent许多复合词是意义明确的（3）Grammatical features6。Compounding can take place within any of the word classes, but the productive ones are nounsand adjectives followed by verbs to a much lesser extent复合适用于任何词

52、类， 但是最具生产力的是名词和形容词后跟动词，这样程度更小。7.Formation of compounds复合词组成（1）Noun compounds（名词）(2)Adjective compounds（形容词）各 11 种需了解(3)Verb compounds（conversion or backformation）8。conversion（zero-derivation 零派生）Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 转换法是通过转换词类到另一

53、词类的构成新词方法Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in function, this process is alsoknown as functionalfunctional shiftshift。 由于词没有改变形态但是改变了功能,这个过程被称为“功能转换”.Conversion is generally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapted orconverted to a new word class w

54、ithout the addition of an affix。 Hence the name zeroderivation反转通常被认为是一个派生的过程，一个词条被改变或者反转成为新词类，没有添加词缀。因此叫做“零派生”。Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs 。通过反转产生的主要是名词，形容词和动词。conversion is not only a change of grammatical function of the lexical item involved but with i

55、tthe different range of meaning that it originally carried 转换不仅是词条语法功能的转换,而且因为转换出现不同的语意范围，和原来承载的不同。9。 In some cases， conversion is accompanied by certain changes which affect pronunciation orspelling or stress distribution。 The most common changes are：(1）Voiceless to voiced consonant（2） Initial to e

56、nd stress在某些情况下，反转被增加一定的变化，这些变化会影响读音或者拼写或者重音的分布.最常见的变化是：+例子例子(1）不发音的辅音变成发音的辅音。（2)开始重音到结束重音。10。 Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus apart of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words。 混合词是组合两个词的一部分或者一个词加上另一词的一部分来构词的方

57、法。 通过这种方式构造的词称作“混合词或拼级词。+例子例子1)head + tail头尾2)head + head头头3)head + word头整词4)word + tail整词尾11。 Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original andusing what remains instead. This is called clipping另一种造词的常见方式是缩短一个长词，用减去原词一部分,使用剩下部分的方法。这叫删减.+例子例子1)Fro

58、nt clipping前删2)Back clipping后删3)Front and back clipping前后删4)Phrase clipping删短语12。 Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names ofsocial and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms 。 Words formed inthis way are called initialisms or

59、acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words。 首字母缩略法是构成新词的过程， 通过连接社会和政治组织或者特别名词短语和技术术语的首字母。通过这种方式建成的词叫做首字母缩略法和首字母拼音法，依赖词语的发音.13。 Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter。 In cases likeA.D。(Anno Domini = inthe year after the birth of Jesus Christ ），B.C. . (Before Christ） and C。O。D。

60、（cash ondelivery) 缩略词是字母挨个发音的词14。 Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word， forexample radar (radio detecting and ranging)， and WAVES (Women Appointed for VoluntaryEmergency Service), etc首字母缩写词是从首字母构成，但是发音是正常词15。 Back-formation is considered to be the opposite p

61、rocess of suffixation。 As we know,suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases ， and backformation istherefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes。 逆构法被认为是后缀法的相反过程。如我们所知，后缀法是通过加后缀到基础的构词方式， 逆构法因此就是通过消除假想的后缀的方法来构词的方式。16。 Words created through backfor

62、mation are mostly verbs. There are only a few that can beused as nouns or as both nouns and verbs 通过逆构法构成的词大多数是动词, 只有少数可以被当成名词使用,或者同时当作名词和动词。Chapter 5 Word MeaningChapter 5 Word Meaning1.Words are but symbols， many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference词语只是符号，许多只当它们获得参考的时候才有意义.

63、1.Reference1.Reference（所指)：It is the relationship between language and the world。 The reference of aword is arbitrary and conventional。 It is a kind of abstraction， yet with the help of context， itcan refer to something specific。 参考是语言和世界之间的联系。其是任意且约定俗成的。尽管参考是一种抽象，然而在背景的帮助下,它能指示特定的事物。The connection

64、is a result of generalization and abstraction.它是一般化和抽象化的结果。2.Concept2.Concept(概念）:which is beyond language， is the result of human cognition(认识）,reflectingthe objective world in the human mind。 。概念， 是在语言之外，是人类认识的结果，反映人心中的客观世界.3.Meaning and concept :3.Meaning and concept : They are both related direc

65、tly to referents and are notions of the wordsbut belong to different categories。 它们都是直接和参照物联系,而且是词的概念但是属于不同的种类.Meaning so is restricted to language use.意义仅限于语言的使用.4.Sense4.Sense:It denotes the relationship inside the language。 The sense of an expression is its place ina system of semantic relationsh

66、ips with other expressio ns in the language. “语感”表示语言内部的关系。“表达的感觉是它在一套语意关系中的位置，和其他表达相对而言.5 5。Sense and ReferenceSense and Reference：Unlike reference, sense denotes the relationships inside the language.The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with otherexpression

67、s in the lan guage. (ibid） Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is oftendifficult to say what sort of identity it is 。 It is also an abstraction. Every word that has meaninghas sense (not every word has reference ）. 不像参考,“语感”表示语言内部的关系。“表达的感觉是它在一套语意关系中的位置，和其他表达相对而言。由于表达的感觉不是具体事物,因此很难说它

68、属于哪种定义。它也是一种抽象。有意义的词都有语感(但并不是每个词都有参照物） 。6.Motivation6.Motivation（动机） ：Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol andits meaning. As we know, the relationship between the word form and meaning is conventionaland arbitrary, and most words can be said to be non-motivated 。动机说明

69、语言符号和它意义之间的关系。如我们所知,词的形式和意义之间的关系是约定俗成和随意的，大多数词可以说是没有动机的。7 7。 1) Onomatopoeic motivation1) Onomatopoeic motivation （象声动机）（象声动机） ： words whose sounds suggest their meaning， forthese words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises 。 Knowing the sounds of thewords means understanding the me

70、aning. E。g。 ： bang, pingpong, ha ha。 一些词声音暗示了它们的意义。因为这些词是模仿自然界的声音而成。知道词的读音意味着理解意义。2 2 ） MorphologicalMorphological motivationmotivation ( ( 词词 素素 动动 机机 ）：Compounds and derived words aremultimorphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemescombines。 E。g。 ： airmail， miniskirt

71、.例外：black market， ect. 复合词和派生词是多词素词，许多词的意义是组合词素的总和。+实例分析实例分析3)Semantic motivation3)Semantic motivation（语义动机（语义动机) ):refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptualmeaning of a word。 It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense ofthe word。 E.g:the foot of th

72、e mountain（foot） 语义动机指词的概念意义所暗示的心理联系。他说明单词字面意义和和比喻意义之间的关系。+实例分析实例分析4 4）Etymological motivationEtymological motivation （语源动机）（语源动机） ：The meanings of many words often relate directly totheir origins 。 In other words the history of the word explains the meaning of the word。E.g：penfeather 许多词汇的意义通常直接和它们

73、的源头相联系。换句话说，词语的历史解释了词语的意思。+实例分析实例分析8. 8. 1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）: grammatical meanings refers to that part of the meaningof the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words（nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs)， singular and plural meaning of nouns, tens

74、e meaning ofverbs and their inflectional forms (forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting)。 Grammaticalmeaning of a word becomes important only when it is used in actual context. 语法意义指词义中描述语法概念或者关系的部分，象是词汇说话中的部分(名词，动词，形容词,副词）,名词的单复数意义,动词的时态意义和它们的屈折格形式。 （略） 。语法意义只有当它在实际使用的时候才变得重要。2.Lexical Meani

75、ng （词汇意义)（Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning）词法意义和语法意义组成了词义.But lexical meaning is constant in all the content words within or without context as it is related tothe notion that the word conveys. Lexical meaning itself has two components： conceptual mean-ing and associa

76、tive meaning。 但是词法意义在所有内容词中出现不管有没有上下文， 因为它是和词语传达的意义相联系。词法意义本身包括两个内容:概念意义和联系意义。1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaninggiven in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning. 概念意义 （也被称为指示意义)是字典中给出的意义，也是词义的核心。2）Associative meaning(关联意义)：is the secondary mea

77、ning supplemented to the conceptualmeaning. 联想意义是用来补充概念意义的第二意义。4types：（1）Connotative(内涵意义） ：In contrast to denotative meaning, overtones or associationssuggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.（例如“母亲”经常与“爱“关心”“温柔”联系起来） 。隐含义。和指示义相比，隐含义指被概念义暗示的弦外之音或者联系。传统的被认为是隐含义。（2）Sty

78、listic(文体意义） ：Apart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylisticfeatures, which make them appropriate for different contexts. 除了它们的概念义，许多词有文体特征，使它们适合不同的环境。这些清楚的特征构成了单词的文体意义。（3）Affective(感情意义） ：indicates the speakers attitude towards the person or thing inquestion. 感情义是指说者对讨论中的人或物的态度。这种情

79、感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义 appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative（搭配意义） ：This meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in itscollocation. In other words, it is the part of the word meaning suggested by the wordsbefore or after the word in discussion。这种意义由词语在他的连接中获得的关系组成.换句话说,他是词义中被前面或后面词暗示的意义部分。9. 9

80、. 特点：It is not an essential part of the word-meaning， but associations that might occur in themind of a particular user of the language。 Connotative meaning is unstable， varyingconsiderably according to culture， historical period， and the experience of the individual. 这些隐含义没有出现在字典中， 但是对特定的读者和说者而言却和实

81、际背景中词语相联系。 隐含义是不稳定的，根据文化,历史时期和个人经验相对变化。Chapter 6 -Sense relation and semantic fieldChapter 6 -Sense relation and semantic field (语义关系和语义场）1 1。A word which is related to other words is related to them in sense, hence sense relations。 一个和其他词语相联系的词语在意义上和它们相联系.因此称为意义联系。The subjects that have long held t

82、he interest and attention of semanticists are polysemy，homonymy， synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy。 吸引着语义学者的长久主题是歧义，同音异义，同义，反义和上下位关系。2.Polysemy2.Polysemy（多义关系）In the course of development, the same symbol must be used to express more meanings. The resultis polysemy。 在发展的过程中，同一个符号一定被用来表示更多的意义。结果就是歧义。(1

83、)Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法):1。diachronic approach（历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view， polysemy is assumedto be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. Firstmeaning is the primary meaning ， the later meanings are called derived meanings.

84、 从历时发展的观点，歧义被认为是一个词意义结构成长和发展的过程。 在词语建立的时候，它只被赞助了一个意思.这个意义是基本义。后来的意义被称为“派生义。At the time when the word was created, it was endowed with only one meaning.在词语建立的时候，它只被赋予了一个意思。2. synchronic approach （共时方法) ： synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence ofvarious meanings of the same word in a ce

85、rtain historical period of time。基本意义是 centralmeaning ， 次要意义是 derived meaning。 从共时的角度看，歧义被看成同一词在一定历史时期不同意义的共存。（2)Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型)：1。 radiation （辐射型） ： is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre andthe secondary meanings proceed out of it in every di

86、rection like rayes. （e。g： face, neck)辐射发展是语义发展，基本义处于中心地位而次要意义由中心义辐射而出，象是射线.The meanings are independent of one another , but can all be traced back to the central meaning.其他的意义都是独立的,但是都能追溯到中心义。2。concatenation（连锁型)： meaning linking together，is the semantic process in which themeaning of a word move g

87、radually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is nota sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at thebeginning。 （e.g:treacle) 意思是联系在一起，是语义过程,在其中词义通过不断转移直到最终发展的意义和在开始时的意义之间没有了连接的痕迹为止。3.区别：Unlike radiation where each of the derive

88、d meanings is directly connected to the primarymeaning，concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning is related only to thepreceding one like chains. 不像“辐射发展,每一个派生义都和基本义直接联系,连接义描述了每个后来的意义都只和前面的一个意义有联系，就像是链条.Though the latest sense can betraced back to the original, there is no di

89、rect connection in between.尽管最后的意义可以被追溯到起源，但是两者之间没有直接的联系.4。 联系： They are closely related，being different stages of the development leading to polysemy。Generally, radiation precedes concatenation。 In many cases, the two processes work together,complementing each other. 辐射和连接紧密相关,是导向歧义的不同发展阶段。总体来说，辐射先

90、于连接。许多时候,两个过程同时起作用，互为补充.3 3。 HomonymyHomonymy(同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in soundand spelling or identical only in sound or spelling。 同音异义通常被定义为意义不同但是或者在声音和拼写上都相同，或者只在声音或拼写上相同的词。（1)Types of homonyms(1)Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别）同音同形异义关系的类别）+ +例子例子1)Perfect homony

91、ms(完全同音同形异义词)：words identical both in sound and spelling, butdifferent in meaning. 完全同音同形异义词就是发音和拼写完全相同,但是意义不同2)Homographs（同形异义词)：words identical only in spelling, but different in sound andmeaning。同形异义词是只有拼写相同，但是读音和意义不同3）Homophones（同音异义词） ：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and

92、meaning. (最多最常见)同音字是只有读音相同,但是拼写和意义不同homophones constitute the largest number and are most common. 在三种类型中， 同音词数量最多最常用。（2 2）Origins of homonymsOrigins of homonyms （同形同音异义词的来源（同形同音异义词的来源)+)+例子例子1）change in sound and spelling :(eareear, langlong, langian-long）2）borrowing （feriafair, beallu-ball, ballerb

93、all )3）Shortening(缩略）: (adadvertisement， ）（3 3）Differentiation of Homonyms from PolysemantsDifferentiation of Homonyms from Polysemants（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别) )：Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation.This creates the problem of differen

94、tiation。 完美同名词和歧义词都在拼写和发音方面完全,这产生了区别的问题. 1)The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies inthe fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and thelatter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings。 基本的区别是表现在下面的事实， 也就是前

95、者指不同的词碰巧分享了相同的形式， 后者是同一个词有不同的意义.2）One important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e. homonyms are from different sourceswhereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in thecourse of development。 一个重要的标准是看它们的词源，也就是同名词来源于不同的渠道而歧义词来自于同一渠道不过是在发展的过程中获得了不同的意义。3)Th

96、e second principalconsideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated andconnected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree， e. g. neck （See 6. 1 Polysemy).歧义词的不同意义都是和一个中心意义有或多或少的联系，象是 neck. On the other hand,meanings of different homonyms have noth

97、ing to do with one another。 In dictionaries， apolysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed asseparate entries.第二个基本注意点是语义联系。另一方面，不同的同名词与其他的无关。在词典中,歧义词把所以的意义都列在一个中心词下面，而同名词作为不同的词条列出。(4(4） Rhetoric features of homonymsRhetoric features of homonyms （同形同音异义词的修辞特色

98、同形同音异义词的修辞特色) )： As homonyms are identicalin sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desiredeffect of， say, humor， sarcasm or ridicule。 由于同名词在声音或拼写上是相同的,特别是同音词，它们经常被用来为预期效果制造双关语,也就是说,幽默，讽刺或者嘲笑.4. Synonymy4. Synonymy （同义关系）: one of two or more words in t

99、he English language which have thesame or very nearly the same essential meaning。 两个以上拥有相同或者非常相近基本义的词中之一Types of Synonymy(Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别同义词的类别) :) : （了解下就好（了解下就好) )Absolute synonyms（完全同义词） ：also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all aspects， i。e。 both i

100、n grammatical meaning and lexical meaning， including conceptual and associative meanings. Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. 是那些在各方面意义完全相同的词，就是说，在语法意义和词法意义两方面， 包括概念义和联想义。 绝对同义词仅限于高度专业化的词汇。(1) relative synonyms （相对同义词） :also called near-synonyms are simil

101、ar or nearly the same indenotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a givenquality.(e.g： change/alter/vary， stagger/reel/totter， strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)相对同义词也叫近义词是在指示义上相似或者接近相同， 但是包括不同的意义影射或者品质的不同程度。Sources of synonyms(Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源同义词的来源)

102、): : （没时间就放过（没时间就放过) )1）Borrowing(借词)：最重要的来源 (room-chamber， foe-enemy, help-aid, leavedepart，wisesage, buypurchase)2)Dialects and regional English (方言和地区英语)3)Figurativeandeuphemisticuseofwords( 单 词 的 修 饰 和 委 婉 用 法 ）：occupation/profession-walk of life， dreamer-star-gazer， drunk-elevated, lie-distort

103、of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions(与习惯表达一致 )：win-gain the upper hand，decidemake up ones mind, finishget through， hesitate-be in two minds， helplend one ahand.Discrimination of SynonymsDiscrimination of Synonyms区别区别(1) difference in denotation 指示义不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and

104、 intensity ofmeaning.（richwealthy， work-toil， want-wishdesire） 同义词可能在意义的范围和感情程度上相互区别(2) difference in connotation 内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylisticappropriateness. 隐含义我们是说词语的风格和情感色彩。 一些词指示义相同但是

105、风格不同。(借词:answer-respond, storm-tempest， wood-forest， handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar,homelydomestic ，fleshycarnal 。 中 性 词 ： policeman-constable-bobbycop ，askbeg-request。 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, blisshappiness， forlorndistresses,diredreadful, listlisten， enowenough， saveexpect, merelake )(3) difference in

106、application.应用不同 Many words are synonymous in meaning but differencein usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentencepatterns。 许多词在意义上是同义词，但是在简单条件下的用法不同.他们构成不同的连接适合于不同的句型。 （allow sb。 to do sth. let sb. do sth。 / answer the letterreplyto the letter）+论述实例分析论述实

107、例分析5. Antonymy5. Antonymy(反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition。Antonyms can be defined aswords which are opposite in meaning。 反义和意义的对立相关。反义词可以被定义为意义对立的词。（1 1）Types of AntonymsTypes of Antonyms：概念概念+ +特色特色1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词)： these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning

108、。这些反义词真正代表了意义的对立。特点：The assertion of one is the denial of the other. 一个肯定是另外的否定。Another distinctive feature of this category is that such antonyms are non-gradable. Theycannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualifythem . (e.g： single/married) 另一个显

109、著特征是那样的反义词是不能分级的。它们不能被应用于比较级中,不能允许程度副词象是very 去限定它们.2） contrary terms （对立反义词） : antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale runningbetween two poles or extremes.（e.g： old/young， rich/young， big/small） 这一类反义词最好根据两个极端间的尺度来划分。The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with

110、 the other.两个对立面是分级的，一个和另一个相对存在.3)relative terms （关系反义词） ： this type consists of relational opposites. 第三种由相关对立的词语组成（parent/child， husband/wife， employee/employer,sell/buy， receive-give)In the case of relative terms, the opposition is only relational。 在相对词语中， 对立只是相关的.(2(2）Some of the characteristics

111、 of antonyms(Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点反义关系的特点): ):1）antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.反义词在意义对立的基础上分类.Therefore， in a language， there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms. 因此在语言中，同义词比反义词更多.2） a word which has more than one meaning can have more

112、than one antonym多义词可以拥有一个以上反义词3）antonyms differ in semantic inclusion( 语义内涵）Pairs of antonyms are seen as marked andunmarked terms respectively. In many pairs we find that one memberis more specific than theother and the meaning of the specific is included in that of the general。 反义词的语义内涵相互区别。 成对的反义

113、词被分别视作有标记和没标记的。 在许多对中我们发现其中一个成员更加具体，特殊的意义被包括在通常的意义当中。+实例分析实例分析4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intensity, so each has its owncorresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hotcold/warm-cool) 对立词语是分级的反义词， 在程度上区别，因此每个都有它们自己的反义词.Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the

114、 same time, one being the negativeand the other opposite. 一些词同时有两种不同类型的反义词，一个是消极的一个是对立的。象是 happy/unhappy/sad,Productive/unpruductive/destructive,free/unfree/enslaved（3)The use of antonyms(3)The use of antonyms(反义词的使用反义词的使用) )大题大题特征：Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words。已

115、经被证明对定义词义有帮助价值 The different shades of meaning are clearly brought out by replacing them withantonyms 不同的意义影射可以用替换反义词的方法表示出来。大题大题+ +例子例子 3838Antonyms are useful in enabling us to express economically the opposite of a particularthought， often for the sake of contrast。 Many idioms are formed with ant

116、onyms。 反义词对我们精确表达特定思想的反面非常有用，经常是为了对比的目的。许多习语由反义词组成。.(e。g :now or never, rain or shine， friend or foe 敌友,weal and woe 哀乐)Antonyms are often used to form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideastogether。 反义词经常通过把对立的思想放在一起 ,构建对立面渠构筑重点 .（proverbs andsayings 谚语和民谚： easy come , easy go.

117、/ more haste, less speed。 ）6. Hyponymy6. Hyponymy(上下义关系)： （1）Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion。The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word。 Forexample, a cat is hyponym of animal上下位是针对语义内容的关系， 就是说， 一个更专有的意义被包括在另一个更普遍的单词意义里面.（2）Hyponym

118、y can be described in terms of tree-like graphs。 上下位关系也可以根据树状图来表示。（3)The sense relation of hyponymy is very helpful in both receptive and productive processing oflanguage.上下位关系对语言的接受和生产过程很有帮助。+实例分析实例分析（4)In production， knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates canhelp us

119、 achieve vividness， exactness, and concreteness. 在生产中,知道上下位词的语义特征和他们的上级词可以帮助我们获得生动，准确和具体。Superordinate andSuperordinate and SubordinateSubordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete andprecise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader。 Superordinates which convey only ageneral

120、and vague idea. 下级词,具体而且精确,在读者面前展现了生动的画面，上级词，只传达了笼统和模糊的概念。7 7。 Semantic Field(Semantic Field(语义场语义场) )（1）an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense把词汇看成一个词位在意义上相互联系的整体系统 words of language can be classified into semantically related sets or fields 语言的词语可以被分入语义联系系统或语义场e.g.(apple, pear, peac

121、h, date，mango, orange, lemon,etc. make up the semantic field of fruits）The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language 。e。 g。 (aunt in English， may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐， 父亲哥哥的妻子 in Chinese。(122)(2）Words in each field are semantically related and define one an

122、other. It is a general belief thatthe meaning does not exist in the word itself， but it rather spreads over the neighbouring words,because the neighbouring words identify the semantic field and help pin down the meaning. 每个语义场中的词语义关联和定义其他的。 这是一条总原则，意义不存在于词语自身， 但是他相当覆盖邻居的词,因为相邻的词定义语义场并且帮助确定他的含义。（3)Th

123、e vocabulary of a language is in constant change； old items drop out， new items comein， and as the new replace the old, so the internal relations of the whole set alter. A simple andfamiliar example of this is one corner of the personal address system in modern English.语言的词汇总是不断的变化;旧词消失,新词出现,当新词代替旧词

124、，这个系统的内部关系改变了。简单和熟悉的例子是现代英语中人物称谓系统.Chapter 7 Changes in Word MeaningChapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变词义的演变1. 1. Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes bothin form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form。词汇是语言

125、中最不稳定的因素由于它正在持续不断的变化,在形式和内容方面.相较而言，内容比形式更不稳定2.Types of Changes (2.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类词义变化的种类) )Wordmeaning changes by modes of extension, narrowing， degradation, elevation， andtransfer。 Of these, extension and narrowing are by far the most common。 词义变换通过延展，缩小,降级,升级和转移的方式.在其中，延展和缩小尤其普遍。1 1） Ext

126、ension /generalization(Extension /generalization(词义的扩大）词义的扩大） : also known as generalization， is the name given tothe widening of meaning which some words undergo 。 It is a process by which originally had aspecialized meaning has now become generalized。 意义的延展也被说成一般化，是对某些词语意义扩展的命名 .它是原来词语意义具体现在便的一般化的

127、过程。(e。g： manuscript,fabulous， picture， mill， journal， bonfire, butcher, companion） + +例子例子2 2）Narrowing/Narrowing/ specializationspecialization（词义的缩小（词义的缩小) )：also called specialization,，is the opposite ofwidening meaning。It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower orspeciali

128、zed sense. In other words， a word which used to have a more general sense becomesrestricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English. 词义的缩小，也称作特殊化，是扩大词义的相反方面.他是一个广泛意义的词获得狭窄或者特殊意义的词的过程。换而言之，过去拥有更广泛意义的词在表达中被限制,在当代英语中传达特殊的意义。+ +例子例子(e.g: deer， corn， garage, liquor， meat，

129、disease， poison， wife, accident, girl). when a common word is turned into a proper noun， the meaning is narrowed accordingly. 当通用词变成了专有名词，词义相应缩小3 3）ElevationElevation /amelioration/amelioration（词义的升华）（词义的升华） ：refers to the process by which words rise fromhumble(粗陋的) beginnings to positions of import

130、ance。 升级指代词语从卑下提升到重要的地位。 nice， marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister， chamberlain + +例子例子4 4）Degradation / pejoration(Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格词义的降格) ): is the opposite of semantic elevation。 It is a processwhereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non

131、-affective words come to used inderogatory（贬损的） sense。 降级或者蔑称是意义升级的反面.这是一个好起源的词得到了坏名声或者没感情词变成在贬义中使用。 boor， churl， wench, hussy, villain， silly, knave，lewd, criticize， lust + +例子例子5 5） Transfer(Transfer(词义的转移）词义的转移） : Words which were used to designate指明 one thing but later changedto mean something e

132、lse have experienced the process of semantic transfer semantic transfer。 过去指代一件事情但是后来指代其他事情的词语经历了语义转移的过程。+ +例子例子In modern times， paper is made from rags， wood, straw and the like, but the product hasretained the same name. There isassociated transferassociated transfer 在现代， 纸的原料是破布,木材， 麦秆和类似的物品,但是产品

133、仍然使用同一名称。这是联想转移。+ +例子例子associatedassociated transfer:atransfer:a termterm usedused inin relationrelation toto changeschanges inin wordword meaningmeaning inin whichwhich thethemeaning is transferred through associationmeaning is transferred through association ，e e。g purse forg purse formoneymoneydi

134、sh fordish for foodfoodetcetcTransfer may also occur between abstract and concrete meanings 转移也出现在抽象义和具体义之间.Another transfer that occurs between subjective and objective meanings 另一种转移出现在主观和客观意义之间.3 3。Causes of Semantic ChangeCauses of Semantic Change（词义变化的原因）（词义变化的原因）1 1）Extra-linguistic factorsExt

135、ra-linguistic factors（词义演变的语言外部因素）（词义演变的语言外部因素）: :1） Historical reason(历史原因)2 ）Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaningin the case of elevation or degradation。 阶级态度也在升级降级的词义中取得了进展.3) Psychological reason（心理原因)2 2）Linguistic factorsLinguistic factors（语言内部

136、原因）（语言内部原因） ：(a）One type of such change occurs when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains themeaning of the whole 一种那样的变化出现当一个短语被缩短成一个词， 那词还保留了短语的意义（goldgold medal， gascoal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier）(b)The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning

137、借词的引入导致了一些词语意义改变（deeranimalbeast）（c） the competition of native words eventually resulted in the semantic division本地词的竞争终于导致了语义的分化(d)the change of meaning is brought about by analogy词义的变化可能来自类推Chapter 8Chapter 8Meaning and ContextMeaning and Context 词义和语境词义和语境1.Two types of context1.Two types of cont

138、ext（语境的种类）（语境的种类）1 1） ExtraExtralinguisticlinguistic contextcontext oror Non-linguisticNon-linguistic situation(situation(非语言语境非语言语境 ) )Context is used indifferent senses。 In a narrow sense， it refers to the words， clauses, sentences in which a wordappears。This is known as linguistic context, which

139、may cover a paragraph，a whole chapter andeven the entire book。 In a broad sense， it includes the physical situation as well. This is calledextra-linguistic or nonlinguistic context, which embraces the people， time, place, and even thewhole cultural background. 背景有不同的意义。狭义的说，他指单词出现的词语，短语和句子。这是语言背景,可能

140、覆盖一个段落,整个章节甚至是全书.在广义上说，它同样包括现实情况，称为非语言背景，包括人物,时间,地点，甚至是整个文化背景. （look out， weekend,landlord )2 2）Linguistic context/ grammatical contextLinguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境）1） Lexical context（词汇语境)：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word inquestion。 这种背景指的是那些和讨论的词语一起出现的词。 （e。

141、g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context(语法语境） ：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may beinfluenced by the structure in which it occurs. 在某些时候， 词义可能被它出现其中的句子结构影响.（e。g： become)2 2。The role of context(The role of context(语境的三个作用语境的三个作用) )1 1）Elimination of ambiguity(Elimination of ambiguity

142、(消除歧义）消除歧义） + +例子例子1）Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy. When a word with multiple meaningsis used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity 歧义经常由于多义关系和同音同形歧义关系而产生。当一个有多种意义的词被使用在不适当的背景中,他产生了歧义2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity语法结构也会引出歧义如何消除歧义？extend the original se

143、ntence 扩展原句 alter the context a little 稍微改变上下文2 2）Indication of referents(Indication of referents(限定所指限定所指) )Without clear context， the reference can be very confusing. 没有清楚的背景，指代将非常模糊如何限定所指？with clear contextwith adequate verbal context有足够的语言上下文3 3）Provision of clues for inferring wordProvision of

144、clues for inferring wordmeaningmeaning （提供线索以猜测词义（提供线索以猜测词义)+)+例子例子Context may prove extremely valuable in guessing the meanings of new words. In many cases,when a new word（thought to be）appears for the first time, the author generally manages to givehints which might help the readers to grasp the c

145、oncept or understand the idea。 背景可能很有价值在猜测新词含义方面.在许多时候，当一个新词第一次出现,作者通常给予帮助读者掌握概念和思想的暗示。This is called contextual clues。上下文线索1）definition 定义2）explanation 解释3)example 例子4）synonymy同义5)antonymy 反义6）hyponymy(上下义关系)7）relevant details 相关的细节8)word structure 词语结构Chapter 9Chapter 9English IdiomsEnglish Idioms

146、 英语习语英语习语1 1。Idioms(Idioms(习语的定义）习语的定义）： Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readilyunderstandable from their literal meaning of individual elements。 严格的说，习语是很难从字面上来理解。 In a broad sense， idiom may include colloquialisms （俗语） ， Catchphrases（标语） ， slang expressions（俚语） ,proverbs （谚语

147、） ,etc. They form an important part of the Englishvocabulary.在广义上，习语可能包括口语，标题，俚语，谚语等。它们构成了英语词汇重要的部分。2.Characteristics of Idioms2.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）（英语习语的特点）1)Semantic unity (1)Semantic unity (语意的整体性）语意的整体性） ：Thoughthe various words which make up the idiom havelost their individual id

148、entity。 每个构成习语的词都失去了它们独立的意义。Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.习语的整体意义不是经常能被辨认.Quite often the idiom functions as one word。习语经常象一个词一样起作用The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literalmeaning of each of the idio

149、m. 习语的意义单位也反映在每个词的字面意义和习语意义之间的非逻辑关系上。2 2）StructuralStructural stabilitystability（结构的稳定性）（结构的稳定性）:the:the structurestructure ofof anan idiomidiom is is toto a a largelarge extentextent ununchangeablechangeable。 习语的结构很大程度上难以改变。1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced习语的内容不能替换2) the word order

150、cannot be inverted or changed词语顺序不能反转或改变3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.习语的成分不能被删除和添加4） many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.许多习语在语法上是不能分析的5）The idiomaticity of idioms is gradable and may best be thought in terms of a scale. 习语的短语惯用性是可分级的，可能最好从等

151、级上来研究.短语惯用性分三个级别：true idioms：semiidiomsregular combinationswith the true idioms established at the upper end and regular combinations at the bottom. 真正的习语建立的顶端而习惯用语在底端.In between are the semiidioms在两者之间是半习语。 By true idioms we mean that the meaning of the idiom cannot be deduced from those of theindi

152、vidual constituents 我们说的真习语是说习语的意义不能从那些独立的成分的意义推导出来 6）The fixity of idioms depends on the idiomaticity.习语的固定性依靠他们的短语惯用性。3.Classification of Idioms3.Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）（英语习语的分类）Classification can be approached from different angles。Studies on English idioms to this day andvarious dictio

153、naries of idioms have provided a variety of criteria for classifying idioms。 分类可以从不同的角度进行.到今天英语习语的研究和不同的习语词典已经提供了许多习语分类的标准。we prefer the criterion of grammatical functions （See Lu 1983) . This is because suchclassification will be more helpful in the actual use of idioms 。 我们更愿用语法功能去划定标准。 这是因为那样分类对习

154、语的实际应用更有帮助。 The difficulty in using idioms appropriatelylies first in the difficulty of grasping the elusive and figurative meaning and then in the difficultyof determining the syntactic functions of idioms.使用习语的困难恰好首先出现在抓住难解的和形象的意义，然后出现在理解习语句法功能的困难上. For instance， heart and soul is anidiom made up

155、of two nouns connected by and。 It looks like a noun phrase on appearance， butit is in fact used as an adverbial. 例如,heart and soul 是用 and 连接的名词习语，表面上看象是个名词短语,但是却作为状语使用。A knowledge of the grammatical functions of idioms willundoubtedly be beneficial to learners。 By this criterion， idioms may be class

156、ified into fivegroups。关于语法功能的尝试毫无疑问对学者有益。通过这个标准，习语可以被分成五类.+例子例子1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语 （white elephant累赘物)Idioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences 这种习语以一个名词作为关键词,在句子中起名词的作用2 。idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语 (as poor as a church mouse）Al

157、l the idioms listed below function as adjectives but the constituents are not necessarilyadjectives 所有下面列出的习语都象形容词一样起作用，但是成分不一定是形容词3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语 (look into)This is the largest group of all. The structures of such idioms are quite complex and thus can besubdivided into phrasal verb

158、s and other verb phrases 这是最大的一类。那种习语的结构十分复杂能被分为短语动词和动词短语。4 。idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语 （tooth and nail 拼命）This class contains numerous prepositional phrases ， which in nature are either adjectival oradverbial and in many cases have both functions at the same time. 这一类包括很多介词短语， 许多时候,他们或者是形容词性或者

159、是副词性，同时有两种功能。5 。sentence idioms 句式习语 （never do things by halves）As the term suggests, all idioms of this category are complete sentences。 They are mainlyproverbs and sayings, including colloquialisms and catchphrases。 就像是暗示的，所有此类的习语是完整句.他们主要是谚语，包括口语和标题。Use of idiomsUse of idioms（习语的使用）1 1。Stylistic

160、featuresStylistic features（文体色彩（文体色彩) )：Such expressions were all colloquial and informal and once confined to a limited group of peopleengaged in the same trade or activity 。 那些表达都是口语的和不正规的，曾经只限制在特定群体的人们使用，他们从事相同的行业或活动 .But they proved terse, vivid， forcible andstimulating so that later they broke

161、out of their bounds and gradually gained wide acceptance.但是他们简洁，生动，有力而且刺激以至于后来他们打破了限制逐渐被广泛接受。As a result，their early stylistic features faded in part and many became part of the common core of thelanguage and are now used in different situations.结果，他们早期的风格特征部分褪色， 许多变成了语言的一般核心,现在被在不同的情况下使用. Despite t

162、he fact, idioms are generally felt tobe informal and some are colloquialisms and slang， therefore inappropriate for formal style. 尽管事实如此 ,习语 通常感觉 是不正式 有些还是 口语 和俚语， 因此不适 合正 式文体 。Occasionally， we find idioms which are extremely formal and used only in frozen style.偶然的，我们会发现那些极端正式只在僵硬文体中使用的习语。1） colloq

163、uialisms（俗语)2） slang （俚语）3） literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned(指派）different meanings。同样的习语可能有不同的风格当它被冠以不同的意义。2.Rhetorical features(2.Rhetorical features(修辞特点修辞特点) ) +例子例子1） phonetic manipulation （语音处理） ：(1）alliteration 头韵法(2）rhyme 尾韵法2）lexical

164、 manipulation（词法处理)(1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms)同义词并举 scream and shout（2)repetition 重复out and out（3)juxtaposition （of antonyms) 反义词并置 here and there3)figures of speech（修辞格）+例子例子（1）simile 明喻（2)metaphor 暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by ones pen（4）synecdoche 提喻/以部分代整体：earn ones bread(5）Personif

165、ication 拟人法（6）Euphemism 委婉语:kick the bucket（die)(7)hyperbole 夸张:a world of troubleVariations of idioms(Variations of idioms(习语的变异形式习语的变异形式) )：+例子例子The variations in constituents of idioms may be realized by additionThe variations in constituents of idioms may be realized by addition， deletiondeletio

166、n， replacementreplacement，position-shiftingposition-shifting，dismemberingdismembering。etcetc1。addition 增加2.deletion 删除In some instances, some constituents can be added or deleted, which does not affect themeaning of the idioms在某些情况下,一些成分能被添加或删除,不影响含义的习语3.replacement 替换In some idioms， a constituent m

167、ay be replaced by a word of the same part of speech, resultingin synonymous or antonymous idioms。 在某些习语中，一个成分可以被同样话语部分的词语代替，导致同义和反义习语。4.position-shifting 位置转移The positions of certain constituents in some idioms can be shifted without any change inmeaning 在一些习语中的某些成分的位置可以被改变但不改变意义5.dismembering 分解Sho

168、rtening 缩短： This occasionally occurs in proverbs and sayings, where only a part of them isused instead of the whole 这偶然出现在谚语中，只有一部分出现代替整体Dismembering 分解：It is what I mean by breaking up the idioms into pieces, an unusual case ofuse of idioms particularly in literature or popular press to achieve spe

169、cial effect。 通过把习语打碎，一种不常见的使用特别出现在文学或者现代表达中，为了表现特殊的效果。Chapter 10Chapter 10English DictionariesEnglish Dictionaries 英语字典英语字典Types of dictionariesTypes of dictionaries（词典的种类）（词典的种类） ：1 1。Monolingual & bilingual dictionariesMonolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）（单语词典和双语词典） ：最早的词典都是双语的：最早的词典都是双

170、语的(1）.Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language （LDCE， CCELD）. The headword orentries are defined and illustrated in the same language.单语词典是用一种语言写成的词典.中心词或词条被用同一种语言定义和描述。（2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-EnglishD)The main entries are general

171、ly defined or explained in the same language with translations双语词典涉及两种语言。主要词条通常都是用同一种语言定义和说明，附带翻译2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语言词典与百科词典）（语言词典与百科词典）(1）Linguistic dictionary: inguistic dictionaries aim at defining words and explaining their usage

172、sin the language. 语言词典针对词语的定义和解释他们的用法。 They usually cover such areas asspelling， pronunciation， meaning， grammatical function, usage and etymology, etc. 他们通常涵盖以下领域象是拼写,发音，意义，语法功能，用法和词源等等 . These dictionaries can bemonolingual and bilingual这些词典可以双语也可以单语。（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1)encyclopedia （百科全书

173、）: An encyclopedia is not concerned with the language per se butprovides encyclopedic information concerning each headword. 一本百科全书不是关心语言自身而是提供关于每个中心词的百科全书式信息。There the reader cannot find pronunciation ormeanings or usages but other information.在书中读者不能找到读音意义或是用法， 但是有其他信息。(not pronunciation， meanings，

174、 or usages） but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: Encyclopedic dictionaries have the characteristics of both linguisticdictionaries and encyclopedia. 百科全书式词典拥有百科全书和语言词典的特点.In suchdictionaries one can find the general information as in a linguistic dictionary and limitedencyclopedic infor

175、mation as well.在这样的词典中人能找到语言词典中的普通信息和有限的百科全书信息。 （ Chambers Encyclopedic English Dictionary)3 3。UnabridgedUnabridged， desk and pocket dictionaries(desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典）大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典）（1)Unabridged D： it should be large in scope and size， containing at least 200，000headwords。 范围

176、是巨大的，包括至少200000 个中心词（2）Desk D： mediumsized 50,000-150，000（3)Pocket D: 只有拼写、 发音和最重要的意义， 很少或者几乎不举例.about 50， 000 entries orfewer4.Specialized dictionaries4.Specialized dictionaries（专用词典）（专用词典）Special dictionaries concentrate on a particular area of language or knowledge， treating suchdiverse topics as

177、 etymology, synonyms ， idioms， pronunciation， usages in language， andcomputer, engineering， literature and a variety of other subjects。 特殊词典关注语言或知识的特殊方面，针对不同的主题象是词源学，同义词，习语，发音，语言用法，和计算机 ,工程，文学和其他许多不同的主题.The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology ， by C。 T. Onions, Revised-Edition （1982)，Practical En

178、glish Usage，by Michael Swan，(1980） , Collins COBUILD English Usage，(1992),Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs ， by Rosemary Courtney， (1983）, Oxford Dictionary ofCurrent Idiomatic English, (Vol。 I） by A. P. CowieandR. Mackin （1975） ， and （Vol. II）by A. P. Cowie, R。 Mackin and I。 R。 McCaig （1983)， We

179、bsters New Dictionary ofSynonyms, the late version seen in 1978, Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English, by TomMacArthur (1981)， to name just a few.牛津英语词源词典作者 C.T.ONIONS，修改版本(1982） ， 实际英语用法作者 michaelswan(1980)， 科林斯共建英语用法 （1992） 朗满习语动词词典作者 rosemary courtney（1983)牛津当代习语词典 （第一卷）作者 A.P。COWIE 和 r.mackin

180、(1975)(第二卷)作者a.p.cowie,r。 mackin 和 i。 r. mccaig （1983） . 韦伯同义词新词典？最新版出现在1978 年 朗满当代英语词典作者 tom macarthur（1981） ，这只是一小部分。Use of the dictionariesUse of the dictionaries（词典的使用（词典的使用) )For beginners, and elementary and lower-intermediate learners, a bilingual dictionary is essentialas they do not know en

181、ough of the target language to understand fully a monolingual dictionary.对于初学者，基本和中等较低水平的学者， 双语词典是基本的， 因为他们对目标语言认识不足，因此不能使用单语词典.And they need to know the native equivalents to the words beinglearned. Some learners find that they can memorize words better if they know the meanings intheir own languag

182、e. 他们需要知道正在学的词语对应的本国语中的等价物。一些学者发现知道词在自己语言中的意义可以学的更好。 In spite of this， for the post intermediate andadvanced learners， it is advisable to use more of a monolingual one. 尽管如此，对于中高和高阶学者， 建议还是多使用单语词典。 There are a number of advantages。Apart from the increaseof exposure of the language and avoidance of m

183、isunderstanding by translation, users have to thinkin English, understand meanings in terms of other English words, thus enlarging vocabulary ， andlearn the precise meanings of words and usages through definitions and examples.有一些好处， 除了语言启发的增加，避免了翻译的错误，使用者不得不用英语思考,根据其他英语词语理解意义，因此扩大了词汇量,并且学习了词语的精确含义和

184、用法，通过定义和例子。1)Monolingual or bilingual单语或双语2）General or specialized普通或特殊3）British or American 英式或美式American dictionaries contain more encyclopedic information in the main body than theBritish, for example, names of famous people， places of historical interest and the like whereasBritish dictionaries，

185、 especially learners dictionaries， include more grammatical information.美国词典包含了更多的百科知识， 例如名人的名字， 历史地名和类似的事物， 然而英国词典，特别是学者词典,包含了更多的语法信息。 Generally speaking, one may find British usages in anAmerican dictionary。 But as for American usages,users are advised to consult Americandictionaries because chanc

186、es are that such words are excluded from a general British one 。 通常来说，人可以在美国词典中找到英式用法， 但是关于美式用法， 建议使用者去参考美式词典因为可能那样的词被排除在普通的英式词典之外。If a reader has both British and Americandictionaries at hand， the advice is to use the British while reading。 things written by the Britishand refer to the American whi

187、le dealing with stuff produced by Americans 。如果一个读者拥有英式词典和美式词典在手， 建议在阅读英国人写的东西时用英式词典， 参考美式词典在处理美国人写的材料时。4）Early or late早期或最新Content of the dictionaryContent of the dictionary（词典的内容）（词典的内容）1.spelling2.pronunciation3.definition4.usage5.grammar6.usage notes and language notes使用注释和语言注释7.etymological inf

188、ormation词源信息8.supplementary matter补充事项Three good general dictionariesThree good general dictionaries （3 3 本常用字典本常用字典) )1.Longman dictionary of contemporary English (LDCE) new edition1.Longman dictionary of contemporary English (LDCE) new edition（1987)1987)朗文当代英语朗文当代英语词典词典新版：新版： 特征特征clear grammar cod

189、esclear grammar codes清晰的语法代码usage notesusage notes使用注解languagelanguagenotesnotes 语言注解2.Collins COBUILD English language dictionary (CCELDCollins COBUILD English language dictionary (CCELD） （1987)1987) 科林斯合作英语科林斯合作英语词典词典 ： 特征：特征： definition-in full sentencesdefinition-in full sentences Firstly, the definitions in this dictionary are all infull sentences 首先词典中的定义都是用完整句extraextra columncolumndealdeal withwith grammargrammar informationinformation 额外栏usageusage examples-toexamples-to showshow itsitsmeanings and usagesmeanings and usages 使用范例