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1、ARGUMENTATIONIntroduction of CONTENTS目录1.1. Definition Definition 2. 2. Principles and ConventionsPrinciples and Conventions 3.3. Argument structuresArgument structures 4 4. . StrategyStrategy 6. 6. An exampleAn example 5 5. . Common logical fallacies and Common logical fallacies and weakness in arg
2、umentweakness in argument What is argumentation ? Argumentation is analyzed, review of a problem or something, that a style of their own point of view, position, attitude, views and propositions.Critical reviewEditorialsResumeLetters to the editorsExamples of argumentation writing are:Job evaluation
3、Job application letterLetter of recommendation2. Principles and Conventions 2. Principles and Conventions A good argumentation should abide by the following conventions:Follow the rules of reasonThree kinds of evidence:objective data,social consensus,personal credibility and experienceEvidence must
4、be presented logicallyThree types of appeals:ethos(喻德）喻德）,logos（喻理）（喻理）,pathos（喻情）（喻情）1 14 4A well-defined,controversial issueA clear position taken by the writerA convincing argument 2 23 3A reasonable toneA good argumentation should include:1. A well-defined,controversial issue:e.g. lFirst childre
5、n are smarter-But why?l Marriage makes our children richer Heres why l Eating popcorn in the cinema makes people immune to advertising lMen and women cant be just friends 2. A clear position taken by the writere.g. CorrectlCan heterosexual men and women ever be “just friends”? a new study suggests t
6、hat men, relative to women, have a particularly hard time being “just friends.” e.g. ErrorlXXX is one of the most important things in peoples life.It has many advantages.However,just as every coin has two sides,XXX also has some disadvantages.3. A convincing argumentfacts,statistics,testimony,exampl
7、es 4. A reasonable toneI beliveI thinkCONTENTS目录1.1. Definition Definition 2. 2. Principles and ConventionsPrinciples and Conventions 3.3. Argument structuresArgument structures 4 4. . StrategyStrategy 6. 6. An exampleAn example 5 5. . Common logical fallacies and Common logical fallacies and weakne
8、ss in argumentweakness in argument Convergent argumentArgument structures 1. Simple argumentClaim Support inference A simple argument only contains a claim,a support and a inference,as shown in the following: SUPER NANNIES To keep up with the times,Norland College in England,trainning nannies,has ad
9、ded two new classes to its curriculum:martial arts and stunt driving(特技驾驶).Why? Because the children of the rich and famous are often targeted by the paparazzi(狗仔队) ,and could potentially become victims of kidnapping （绑架）attempts. So,Noland thinks its naannies need to know how to handle these high-r
10、isk situations.Claim Support/Claim Support inferenceinferenceA chain argument contains more than one layers of argument.The support of the first layer becomes the claim of the second layer,which needs further support,as shown in the following: relay race 接力比赛2. Chain argument小伙伴，此处有视频哦！3. Compound a
11、rgumentA compound argument contains more than one support for the same claim,as shown in the following:Claim Support inferenceinferenceinferenceSupport Support CELEBRITIESWHOFELLFROMGRACE那些自毁前途的明星“Thehigheryougo,theharderyoufall”isacommonEnglishexpression.Itmeansthemoresuccessfulyoubecome,themoreyou
12、havetolose.Anditsanexperiencesharedbymanycelebritieswhohaveruinedtheircareersbydoingsomethingstupidorillegal.Herearesomefamouspeoplewhohavefallenfromgrace.TigerWoodsIn2009,TigerWoodswasthebestgolferintheworldButthenhehadanaffair.InDecember2009,thetabloids（小报）revealedthatWoodshadcheatedonhiswifewithm
13、orethan12women Lindsay LohanBetween2003and2005,LindsayLohanstarredinastringofhighlysuccessfulfilmsandbecameknownastheteenmovequeenUnfortunately,in2006,Lindsaystarteddrinkinganddoingdrugs;andsince2007,shesbeenarrestedovertwentytimes.Phil Spector iscurrentlyinprisonformurder.Lance Armstrong useperform
14、anceenhancingdrugs.Should Smoking Be Banned? It has become fashionable in the world today to condemn smoking. However, although I feel that smoking can be harmful, I do not think it should be banned. First, smoking undoubtedly helps many people to relax. For some, it . A further point is that govern
15、ments throughout the world make huge profits from levying taxes on cigarettes. This provides funds . I would also argue that people should have the right to choose whether they smoke or not. People should not smoke .兄弟，来兄弟，来一根呀！一根呀！Support Support Support Claim 4. Convergent argumentClaim Support in
16、ferenceSupport A convergent argument requires two supports to work together for a claim. In other words,only one support cannot stand well without the other,as shown in the following.rather than it tells you a structure,it teaches you a way to think：well-knit（严谨）1、its so cold outside,lets have hot p
17、ot for dinner ok?3、because it s better to eat spicy food in cold weather！4、ok,lets go!最后，他们在最后，他们在一起了！一起了！2、why do we have to eat hot pot ?The weather is so cold today.we should eat hot pot for dinner today. Its best to eat spicy food in cold weather.热火锅结构热火锅结构5. Complex argumentClaim Support Suppor
18、t/Claim Support Support Support Support A complex argument combines all the above structures and usually appears to be the final outline of an argumentation,an shown in the following:Sherlock ： Watson is his flatmateWatson need to get a flatshare.Just after lunch ,Mike and Watson come.Watson got sho
19、tWatson cant afford London on an Army pension.Sherlock told Mike that he is a difficult man to find a flatmate. 小伙伴，此处有视频哦！Convergent argumentArgument structures CONTENTS目录1.1. Definition Definition 2. 2. Principles and ConventionsPrinciples and Conventions 3.3. Argument structuresArgument structure
20、s 4 4. . Strategy Strategy 6. 6. An exampleAn example 5 5. . Common logical fallacies and Common logical fallacies and weakness in argumentweakness in argument Strategies1.Reasoning2.Example3.Raisingfigures4.Contrastandcomparison5.Makingconcessions6.Quotation7.Analogy.1. ReasoningReasoning is to org
21、anise the causes and effects in a logical way.inductive reasoning（归纳法）reasoning from detailed facts to general princiles(or from effect to cause)deductive reasoning(演绎法)reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect)常用关联词therefore, as a result,consequently, fortunately, surpri
22、singly.常用句式As ，since，becauseDue to，owing to，Because of ，thanks to The reason why is that be related to be associated with contribute to “Facts speak louder than words.” - Abraham Lincoln Sometimes a specific example is more useful in supporting your claim. 2. Example常用关联词as an illustration, for exam
23、ple, in particular, specifically, to illustrate, to demonstrate.常用句式A good case in point is that A typical example can be found in Claim: opinions on the safety of genetically modified food are drasticly varied.支持：便宜、安全又环保，为什么不选择它呢？反对：又没有足够的实验证明转基因食品绝对安全，所以应该谨慎对待！“Let the data speak for themselves.”
24、 Statistic data from an authentic research paper could be a very powerful support of your claim. 3. Raising figuresWaystopresentfigures:table(表格)linegraph（折线图）barchart（柱状图）piechart（饼状图）processdiagram（流程图）Claim: is very papular,expecially among young women.4. Contrast and comparisonclaim:It is more e
25、xpensive to live in China than in America.e.g.Assume that you earn 8000/month in China and your. American counterpart Peter earns 8000$/month in America.for you : 60 years for Peter:6 yearsfor you : 10 years for Peter:0.5 years20 4 $常用关联词Likewise, similarlyIn contrast,on the contrary, while, whereas
26、. 5. Making concessionsIt is a indirect way to express your disagreement with an opinion. It helps to make your refutation much softer so that you dont offend others and thus makes your opinion more acceptable.常见表达AlthoughthoughAs is grantedIn spite of the fact that Opponents would argue that 小伙伴，此处
27、有视频哦！6. QuotationA quotation is a phrase from a book,research, play,etc,that sb repeats because it is interesting or useful.Using quotation in your argumentation makes it more objective and unbiased,thus your claim may seem more credible and authoritive.In the middle of difficulty lies opportunity.
28、-Albert Einstein 常用句式Just as sb puts it.According to a recent study.A recent opinion poll revealed that A cat is a good cat only if it can catch a mouse. -Xiaoping Deng A soldier who doesnt want to be a general is not a soldier. -Napolon Bonaparte7. AnalogyAnalogy is an inference that if things agre
29、e in some respects they probably agree in others.e.g.water is to fish what air is to humans.I love you,just like mice like rice.常用句式A is to B what C is to D.Just like.CONTENTS目录1.1. Definition Definition 2. 2. Principles and ConventionsPrinciples and Conventions 3.3. Argument structuresArgument stru
30、ctures 4 4. . StrategyStrategy 6. 6. An exampleAn example 5 5. . Common logical fallacies and Common logical fallacies and weakness in argumentweakness in argument 1.AbsolutestatementsAlthough it is important to convince readers by making a strong impression, avoid making absolute claims that can be
31、 dismissed with a single exception. exampleWe cant communicate with people from other country without learning English.要不咱说中文？成啊。小伙伴，此处有视频哦！Money is everything.The heart made by money is empty.example男人没一个好东西No one can deny the fact that There is no doubt that Everyone/ everything/ nothing.2.Falsedi
32、lemmaAvoid overdramatizing your case by offering readers only two alternatives. Most readers will immediately recognize the weakness of such an unrealistic argument.exampleIts necessary to or we will America-love it or leave it! lovehate老妈女盆友3.BasingargumentsonpersonalitiesDont presume that readers
33、will be impressed by citing endorsements by famous people. The fact that a celebrity or single experts supports your argument is not convincing evidence. Dont attack the personality of opposing authorities or reject an idea because someone controversial supports it. National health care, for example
34、, were tenets of both Nazism and Communism.exampleKathie Lee Gifford, a popular TV celebrity, says that cruises are wonderful, so they must be. 我是权威我怕谁！National health care, for example, were tenets of both Nazism and Communism.4.FalseanalogyComparisons form weak arguments. Although they may be usef
35、ul to illustrate an idea, they rarely provide convincing evidence. The fact that an educational policy works in Japan does not mean it will work in the United States. exampleThe fact that a policy works in the past doesnt means it still works in today.Birth control policy is essential to our social
36、and economic system.5.HastygeneralizationsMake sure that any conclusions are based on sufficient evidence and not coincidence or simple circumstance. exampleFrench people are more romantic Asian students are better in math. 6.BeggingthequestionsBegging the Question is a fallacy in which the premises
37、 include the claim that the conclusion is true or assume that the conclusion is true. Bill: God must exist. Jill: How do you know? Bill: Because the Bible says so. Jill: Why should I believe the Bible?Bill: Because the Bible was written by God. exampleThe weakest countries have no real international
38、 status.这话谁说的？Absolute statementsBasing arguments on personalitiesHasty generalizationsFalse dilemmaFalse analogyBegging the questions Logical fallaciesI strongly recommend that people shouldI agree to the point to some extent.I would like to believe thatshould beFormypart/Astome/AsfarasIamconcerned
39、,Idliketoagreetotheformerpointofview./Myfavorgoestothefirstpointofview.Thereareprobablysometruthsinbotharguments/statements.ItistruethatButPersonally,Iprefer/Iminfavorof/onthesideofHow to express your opinion：CONTENTS目录1.1. Definition Definition 2. 2. Principles and ConventionsPrinciples and Convent
40、ions 3.3. Argument structuresArgument structures 4 4. . StrategyStrategy 6. 6. An exampleAn example 5 5. . Common logical fallacies and Common logical fallacies and weakness in argumentweakness in argument To begin with, Disneyland to be built in Shanghai will boost the employment in face of tough j
41、ob market globally. Obviously, another benefit will be spiritual enjoyment and cultural amusement.Moreover, this will be another golden opportunity to elevate Shanghais international metropolis image, aside from the 2010 World Expo.China has become the third largest entity. Embracing multi-cultures
42、and integration into globalization are the inexorable trend. I believe Disneyland to be built in Shanghai will be a correct choice, not only for Shanghai, but also for China.Should We Build Disneyland in Shanghai?Argumentation3. Argument structures 1. Definition 5. Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument 4. Strategy 2. Principles and Conventions 6. An example THANKYOU
