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1、nWhatissemantics?nApproachestomeaningnSenseandreferencenWord/lexicalmeaningnKindsofmeaningnMajorsenserelationsnSentencemeaningnSemanticanalysisnComponentialanalysisnPredicationanalysis2021/6/71n英文semantics来自希腊语semantikos，意思是siginificant(有意义)。是研究语言意义的科学。n词的意义和句子意义. 20世纪60年代以前，语言学家只注重研究词的意义，忽略了句子意义。n研
2、究语言单位的意义，尤其是词语和句子的意义。Whatissemantics?2021/6/72nSemantics-the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.nMeaning is central to the study of communication.nWhat is meaning? - Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language mea
3、ning.2021/6/73nPhilosophersaremainlyinterestedintherelationbetweenlinguisticexpressions,suchasthewordsofalanguage,andpersons,things,andeventsintheworldtowhichthesewordsrefer.nWithinthedomainoflinguistics,semanticsismainlyconcernedwiththeanalysisofmeaningofwords,phrases,orsentencesandsometimeswiththe
4、meaningofutterancesindiscourseorthemeaningofawholetext.2021/6/74Leechsclassificationofmeanings1.ConceptualmeaningLogical,cognitive,ordenotativecontentAssociativemeaning2.ConnotativemeaningWhatiscommunicatedbyvirtueofwhatlanguagereferto.3.SocialmeaningWhatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstancesoflangu
5、ageuse.4.AffectivemeaningWhatiscommunicatedofthefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writer5.ReflectivemeaningWhatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression6.CollocativemeaningWhatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithwordswhichtendstooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.7.Thematicm
6、eaningWhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis2021/6/752021/6/76nConnotationsarerelativelyunstable.Theyvaryconsiderablyaccordingtosociety,historicalperiod,andtheexperienceoftheindividual.e.g. capitalismnTheconnotativemeaningcanbethesame/differentindifferentlang
7、uagesorcultures.ne.g. fox, machinenBUT:dragon, dog, elephant (White Elephant)ASK:WhatdoeswhiteelephantmeaninEnglish?2021/6/77ndenotationandconnotationnDenotationisthepartofmeaningofawordorphrasethatrelatesittophenomenaintherealworldorinafictionalorpossibleworld 将词或片语同现实世界或虚构或可能世界里的现象联系起来的那部分意义nConno
8、tationreferstotheadditionalmeaningsthatawordorphrasehasbeyonditscentralmeaning(denotation).Thesemeaningsshowpeoplesemotionsandattitudes. 词与片语的基本意义之外的意义。表示人们对词或片语所指称的人或事物所怀有的情感或态度2021/6/782)Social/stylisticmeaning社会社会/文体意义文体意义napieceoflanguageconveysaboutthesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse.n传达的关于语言使用
9、的社会环境的意义传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义nManywordshavesocialorstylisticfeaturesthatmakethemappropriateforcertaincontextssteed(poetic)residence(formal)horse(general)abode(poetic)nag(slang)home(general)gee-gee(babylanguage)domicile(veryformal,official)2021/6/793)Affectivemeaning情感意义情感意义nAffectivemeaningindicatesthes
10、peakersfeelingsorattitudestowardsthepersonorthinginquestion.关于说话人或作者感情，态度方面的意义关于说话人或作者感情，态度方面的意义nfamous/notorious, black/nigger, slender/skinny, determined/pigheaded, statesman/politician, confidence/ complacency.nItisobviousthatthefirstwordineachpairisappreciatorywhilethesecondisderogatory.npurrwor
11、dsorsnarlwords2021/6/7104)Reflectedmeaning反射意义反射意义nwhatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwithanothersenseofthesameexpression.通过联系同一表达式的其他意思所传达的意义通过联系同一表达式的其他意思所传达的意义nthemeaningwhicharisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeaning,whenonesenseofawordissostrongthatitformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.nExample
12、:wordshavingataboomeaning,suchasgay,2021/6/7115)Collocativemeaning搭配意义搭配意义nItreferstotheassociationsawordacquiresonaccountofitsmutualexpectancywithsomeotherwordswhichtendtooccurinitsenvironment.通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。npretty and handsomeprettygirl,woman,flower,etc.handsomeboy,man,car,ve
13、ssel,etc.ncowsmaywander,butmaynot stroll;onetrembles with fear,butquiver with excitement.2021/6/712Thematicmeaning主题意义nwhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.通过由顺序和重音组织信息的方式所传达的意义通过由顺序和重音组织信息的方式所传达的意义ne.g.:(1)Heisfamiliartome.(2)Imfamiliarwithhim.na.Amaniswai
14、tinginthehall.b.Theresamanwaitinginthehall.na.WhatIneedisaticket.b.AticketiswhatIneed.2021/6/713Majorsenserelation意义关系意义关系nSynonymy同义关系同义关系nSynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.oe.g. buy and purchase o world and universe o brotherly and fr
15、aternal Note:absoluteorcompletesynonymsarerare,forallthesynonymsdependoncontexttheyappear.(styleformal&informal)2021/6/7141)Dialectalsynonyms方言同义词方言同义词-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol gasoline2)Stylisticsynonyms文体同义词文体同义词-synonymsdifferinginstyle
16、,e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence; 3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的同义词在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的同义词 e.g.collaborator- accomplice,4)Collocationalsynonyms搭配同义词搭配同义词e.g. accuseof, chargewith, rebukefor; 5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms(inrangeandintensityinmea
17、ning),e.g. want, wish, desire ,存在语义差异的同义词存在语义差异的同义词2021/6/715nAntonymy反义关系反义关系nGradableantonyms等级反义词等级反义词-thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young, tall-short, （程度之差）（程度之差）a.gradabilityprettygood-lookingplainugly衣服小衣服小合身衣服大合身衣服大b.Foreachpair,thetermforahigherdegreeserv
18、esasacoverterm(unmarked)howold/tallishe?*howyoung/shortishe?那条河有多长宽深？那条河有多长宽深？*那条河有多短窄浅？那条河有多短窄浅？2021/6/716nComplementaryantonyms互补反义词互补反义词 -thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.boy-girl,single-married, nNotABandNotBAe.g. male & female alive & dead躺着起来 错对2021/6/717nconverse
19、antonyms对立反义词对立反义词 nrelationalopposites关系反义词关系反义词, 对换关系对换关系 exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,ne.g.husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, nThistypeofantonymyistypicallyseeninreciprocalsocialroles,kinshiprelatio
20、ns,temporalandspatialrelations.2021/6/718nHomonymy同音异义现象同音异义现象,同形异义现象同形异义现象Lexicalitemswhichhavethesamephonologicaland/orspellingform,butdifferinmeaningarecalledhomonymsnHomograghs同形异音异义词同形异音异义词-identicalinspellingbutdifferinsoundandmeaning,e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), nHomophones同音异义同
21、音异义/形词形词-identicalinsoundbutdifferinsoundandmeaning,e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, nFull/Completehomonym完全同音异义词完全同音异义词-whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g. ball, bank, watch, scale, fast, bat .nPolysemy一一词多义关系词多义关系referstothephenomenonthatthesamewordmayhaveasetofdifferentmeanings.指同一个
22、词具有几个密切相关的指同一个词具有几个密切相关的意义意义 e.g.face, hand, blanket2021/6/719nHyponymy上下义关系上下义关系nthesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.nSuperordinate:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.nHyponyms:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.nCo-hyponyms:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.2021
23、/6/720nSuperordinate:flowernHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,nSuperordinate:furniturenHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,2021/6/721Sentence meaning2021/6/722Senserelationsbetweensentences 1.XissynonymouswithY(Synonymyorparaphrase)2.XisinconsistentwithY(Inconsistencyo
24、rcontradiction)3.XentailsY(Entailment)4.XpresupposesY(Presupposition)5.Xisacontradiction6.Xissemanticallyanomalous2021/6/723nXissynonymouswithY同义句关系同义句关系nX: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never got married all his life.nX: The boy killed the cat. Y: The cat was killed by the boy.nIfXistrue,Yi
25、strue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.2021/6/724nXisinconsistentwithY对立句关系对立句关系nX: He is single.nY: He has a wife.nX: This is my first visit to Beijing.nY: I have been to Beijing twice.nIfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.2021/6/725nXentailsY语义蕴含语义蕴含nX: John talked to a mother.nY: John married a woman.nX: Mar
26、ry has been to Beijing. nY: Marry has been to China.nEntailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.nIfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifYisfalse,Xisfalse.2021/6/726n蕴含是以语句间的真值关系(truthrelations)为裁定条件。n假如A句为真，那么B句必为真，我们就可以说A句蕴含B句。而假如B句为假，那么A句也肯定为假。nA.Theanarchistassassinatedth
27、eemperor.nB.Theemperordied.2021/6/727nXpresupposesY语义先设语义先设nX: His bike needs repairing.nY: He has a bike.nPaul has given up smoking.nPaul once smoked.nIfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.2021/6/728n不可否定性是界定先设与其他隐形语义差异的主要依据。nJohnmanagedtoseehissharebeforethemarketcrashed.nJohntriedtoseehis
28、sharebeforethemarketcrashed.nJohndidntmanagedtosellhissharebeforethemarketcrashed.2021/6/729nXisacontradiction矛盾关系矛盾关系n*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.n*The orphans parents are pretty well-off.nWhenAiscontradiction,itisinvariablyfalse.2021/6/730nXissemanticallyanomalous语义破格语义破格n*The ma
29、n is pregnant.n*The table has bad intentions.n*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.nWhenAissemanticallyanomalous,itisabsurdinthesensethatitpresupposesacontradiction.2021/6/731SemanticanalysisnAnalysisofmeaningnComponentialanalysisnPredicationanalysis2021/6/732nComponentialanalysis成分分析法-awayt
30、oanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.所有实词的意义都可以分解成一些“语义成分”，称作语义特征，语义标示（SemanticMarkers）、或义素（Sememes）Forexample,n+/-MALE:bull/cow,ram/ewe,stallion/maren+/-ADULT:duck/duckling,pig/piglet,dog/puppy2021/6/733n
31、Man:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEnBoy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEnWoman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEnGirl:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEnman:womanboy:girlman:boywoman:girl两词仅有一个义素之差，如果规定两个词语的义素之中除一个义素不同外其他义素均相同，该两词语即构成反义词，那么上述的对子便构成了四组反义词。n思考：其他词语意义关系思考：其他词语意义关系2021/6/734nDisadvantagesofComponentialan
32、alysisnPolysemouswords(wordshavingmorethanonemeaning)willhavedifferentsetsofsemanticcomponents,suchasmaninMan is mortal.nSomecomponentsareseenasbinarytaxonomies. E.g. Thedistinctionofboy and manisdifferentfromthatofgirl and woman.nTherearesomewordswhosesemanticcomponentsaredifficulttoascertain.E.g.H
33、uman,Adult,Male,arecalledmetalanguage(alanguageusedfortalkingaboutanotherlanguage.2021/6/735nPredicationanalysis述谓结构分析述谓结构分析(BritishG.Leech).1)Themeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g“The dog bites the man”issemanticallydifferentfrom“The man bites the do
34、g”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.n2)There are two aspects to sentence meaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,e.g.n*Green clouds are sleeping furiously.n*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.nWhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledselectionalrestrictions.20
35、21/6/736nProposition命题-theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.指一个句子所表达的基本意义nApropositionconsistsofargument(s)andpredication.nAnargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.nApredicationissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingth
36、eargumentsinasentence. 2021/6/737nAccording to the number of arguments contained in apredication, we may classify the predications into thefollowingtypes:nOne-placepredication:John isillJOHN(BEILL)nTwo-placepredication:Children like sweets.CHILDREN,SWEET(LIKE)nThree-place predication: John gave Mary
37、 a bookJOHN(SEND)MARYBOOKnNo-placepredication:It is hot. (BEHOT)2021/6/738nTom smokes.TOM(SMOKE)nThe tree grows well.TREE(GROW)nThe kids like apples.KIDS(LIKE)APPLEnI sent him a letter.I(SEND)HIMLETTER2021/6/739n命题是对句子的理论抽象，不含句式变体（如将肯定命题是对句子的理论抽象，不含句式变体（如将肯定句演变为否定句、疑问句等）和信息结构变体（如把句演变为否定句、疑问句等）和信息结构变体（如把一般句式转变成强调句或分裂句式），不涉及语态、一般句式转变成强调句或分裂句式），不涉及语态、时、体、冠词等语法范畴。时、体、冠词等语法范畴。nHejumps.nHeisjumping.nHewilljump.nHehasbeenjumping.nDidhejump?nHE(JUMP)2021/6/740部分资料从网络收集整理而来，供大家参考，感谢您的关注！
