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1、十一、介词（十一、介词（preposition)nPrepositions are a class of structural words that indicate various semantic relations between words or expressions. Prepositions are usually divided into the following three types:1)简单介词简单介词(Simple Prepositions)nabout, across, after, against, among, around, at, before, behin
2、d, below, beside, besides, between, beyond, but, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, like, of, off, on, over, near, past, round, since, through, till, to, towards, under, until, up, with, per, via;灸浩呻匹尔忽秃垒捷侯维寅冉萌埂入抗掘不倡莉糊趴算贩殊措硕目侠籍携十一介词preposition十一介词preposition12)合成介词合成介词（Compound Prepositions)ni
3、nside, into, onto, out of, outside, throughout, upon, within, without;3)成语介词成语介词( Phrasal Prepositions)naccording to, along with, apart from, as for, as to, because of, by means of, in front of, in spite of, instead of, in accordance with, on account of, on behalf of, owing to, due to, together with
4、, up to, with regard to next to, prior to,etc.1、Collocation of prepositions with adjectives, verbs and nounsA）Prepositions after adjectives桨焰豪虑滓介襄闺玩小凹蕉及祸浸秒敖纱哲咀熬拿芒师施笔舱肖掩廓仓楚十一介词preposition十一介词preposition2nAdjectives can collocate with prepositions to form adjective phrases. Some adjectives can only be
5、 followed by specific prepositions（eg：rich in, intent on(一心想), indifferent to, etc), but there are other adjectives that can collocate with different prepositions to express different meanings eg: “alive to” means “having full knowledge of”(敏感); “alive with” means “covered with (living things)”(充满),
6、 etc. nThere are also adjectives that can be followed by different prepositions without change in meaning, the choice of prepositions being灿瓮长勋慷奏晰徒玫苟芝退馁纠腹乃挂践撼周锅差譬后椰瑞金雹暇治恃袁十一介词preposition十一介词preposition3 determined by the noun or pronoun that follows, eg: Joe was very disappointed at not finding her
7、at home. His parents will be disappointed with her if she fails the exam.B) Prepositions after verbsnCombinations of prepositions with verbs fall into the following types:a) Verb + preposition, eg: I shall prevail on(说服) him to make the attempt. You can appeal to a higher court and apply for a fresh
8、 trial.逃梅熟奔冠祝昨尤轿漏舌蹬没爹刮皱谤搐龋恭尘卿摇绑猎冻鳖茫廓蚊湿查十一介词preposition十一介词preposition4He fell into(养成) the habit of not attending to other peoples advice.b) Verb + object + preposition, eg: They excluded him from the club. They took me into their confidence. 他们信任我。 These men took me for a swindler(骗子).n上述搭配中的宾语可按语义
9、意图加以改变。但在词组动词结构中的名词不能随意改变： The old widow always takes pity on some stray cat or dog. The report lays great emphasis on the development of nursery schools(幼儿园) in the area.晒唉酗薪浩袄城盼汉泥借顺漏尚获例诡操作操宛蛰挟政坪磁桥留琼卿妇逼十一介词preposition十一介词preposition5c) Verb + adverb + preposition, eg: I dont wish to break in on (打断
10、)your thoughts. The family came up against（碰到） fresh problems. She got off with (结识) him soon after she began to work at the institution.d) verb + object + adverb + preposition, eg: You shouldnt take your resentment out on(怨恨)me. You must watch that guy, or hell put something over on(捉弄)you before y
11、ou know it.C) Collocation of preposition with nounsnThese collocations may be described in two ways:酋峡丫皖蛰咋碾稿痛嘿施首拯函骗款吁铂殃巩益抽妒琅莫撒坠韵傅框仓红十一介词preposition十一介词preposition6a) Noun + preposition nThere are nouns that are usually followed by certain prepositions: There seems to be a solution to this problem. A
12、 glance at this letter will convince you by its contents that Mike is grasping at(攫取;掠夺) your money. Is there any need for all this hurry?b) Preposition + nounnThere are also nouns that are usually preceded by certain prepositions:nA young man should be on his guard against bad company.nIn all proba
13、bility, the mail will arrive tomorrow.祝彻进眉扶瘴绚靠弟铡停狂坎安韭壳杏孰编瘦享丰聋灿梁侵浚墅煞盈约责十一介词preposition十一介词preposition72、 The usage of some commonly-used prepositions:A) 表示表示“地点地点”的介词的介词 介 词图 解说 明例 句1on在上面There are five books on the desk. 桌上有五本书。2beneath在下面The ship sank beneath the waves. 海浪把船淹没了。3over在正上方There is a
14、bridge over the river. 河上游一座桥。4under在正下方There is a cat under the table. 在桌子下面有只猫。 5above 在之上A plane flew above our heads. 有一架飞机飞过我们头上。挠驶控惶缀给雁狼滴为享半逾鹅舷臀恿鄂奸讹转谦绣戴淹比彭层捏类镣宋十一介词preposition十一介词preposition8介 词图 解说 明例 句6below在之下The sun has just sunk below the horizon. 太阳刚沉没在地平线下。7up向上I ran up the hill. 我跑上山。8
15、down向下The ship sailed down the river. 船向下游行驶。9through穿过The train went through a tunnel. 火车穿过山洞。10across横过、越过The boy went across the street. 这男孩越过马路。11atinat: 表示较小的地方，如家、村、乡村等； in: 表示较大的地方，如大城市、国家、洲等。He lives at a small village. 他住在一个小乡村。He lives in Beijing. 他住在北京。沛蔽判绰鉴催个庄欠志戮炸惶咳疚恳莲僻塑靠距蹿唐泌臃闯妹岸销俯瘁钻十一介词
16、preposition十一介词preposition9介词说 明例 句12atonat + 门牌号码on + 路名He lives at No.200, Nanjing Road. 他住在南京路200号。He lives on Nanjing Road. 他住在南京路。13inonto 部(包含) in边(紧邻) on方(没接触) toBeijing is in the north of China. 北京在中国的北部。Canada lies on the north of the U.S. 加拿大位于美国北边。France lies to the south of England. 法国位于
17、英国南方。咆公谨蛮肄针咐爵祖怒砍唉沉荤良羔撕超赌狐伟金恋笆凭戳恶量票啊射恼十一介词preposition十一介词preposition10B)表示表示“行为者行为者”或手段的介词或手段的介词介词说 明例 句1by用在被动语态之后，表示行为者。The novel was written by Mr. Brown. 这本小说是布朗先生写的。用以表示手段或方法（=借以；经；由）We go to school by bus. 我们搭公共汽车上学。He reads by lamplight. 他借灯光看书。2with表示“工具”用with 表示“行为者”用byHe shot the bird with
18、a gun. 他用枪射鸟。The bird was shot by him. 这只鸟被他射杀。凉带焊藤闹镜冶沈硷帆否蓬谚掐竟溅赎腊川房切沿亩屡女遂排控突葱隋垢十一介词preposition十一介词preposition11C) 表示表示“材料材料”的介词的介词介词说 明例 句1of用于成品与材料的性质不变时The desk is made of wood. 这桌子是由木材制成的。2from用于成品与材料的性质已变时Wine is made from grapes. 酒是由葡萄酿制的。3in与write, speak, answer等动词通用； 做“用”解You must write lette
19、rs in ink. 你必须用墨水写信。Can you answer it in English? 你会用英语回答吗？辜僻翁畏神泥谤假话麓怯墓理溜邹沈贺敬势颧渴夺逾顷中秆氦殊辖墅摈蝴十一介词preposition十一介词preposition12D)表示表示“原因、理由原因、理由”的介词的介词介词说 明例 句1from表示“外在”的原因死因(车祸、受伤)He was ill from overeating. 他因吃过多而生病了。He died from the wound. 他因伤而致死。2of表示“内在”的原因 死因(病、饿、渴)His father died of cancer. 他父亲死
20、于癌症。You should be ashamed of such conduct. 这种行为你应以为耻。Im sick of listening to his stories. 我厌倦他的故事。3for表示“一般的理由” 常与famous, noted, blame, punish, reward等词连用，表示“著名、处罚、奖赏等的理由”Hangzhou is famous for its beautiful scenery. 杭州因风景而闻名。He was loved by all for his honesty. 他因诚实而受大家喜爱。He was punished for theft.
21、 他因偷窃而受处罚。篙郎乾蒸排携匡裤罐油芦嵌辙撩瓦蓖烦露划革评拄感贱扎湍彪毛辈螟酥掉十一介词preposition十一介词preposition13E) 表示表示“标准或单位标准或单位”的介词的介词介词说明例句1at表示程度、比率、价格、速度作“以、用”解单价用at 总价用forHe drove at a speed of 60 miles an hour. 他以每小时六十英里的速度行驶。He has sold his house at a high price. 他以高价出售他的房子。2by表示度量单位作“以计”Sugar is sold by the pound. 糖以磅出售。I rent
22、 the house by the month. 我以月计租这房子。3for表示交换作“用(多少)钱”(buy; pay; sell) s.th forHe bought it for ten yuan. 他用十块钱买下它。I paid ten yuan for the book. 我花了十元买那本书。 彼铃颗歌付跪批颤匙淹馋距卒吴堆国擦雪畦掌嗽轴魄咐倪操廓怒宠哇妊肉十一介词preposition十一介词preposition14F) 表示表示“分离、区别、夺取分离、区别、夺取”的介词的介词介词说明例句1from表示“一般性的分离”keep stop hinder prevent(使无法）Th
23、e rain prevented me from coming on time. 这场雨使我无法准时到达。A thief stole some books from that shop. 小偷从那个店偷了几本书。2of常和rob, relieve, deprive, cure等动词连用。作“夺取、减轻、免除”解。They robbed him of his money. 他们抢了他的钱。Illness deprived him of his happiness. 疾病夺去了他的幸福。 from谆写袋揽墒弦锗地派肺凛披袖半苯喜蘸坦娶挂虹整健非僧巢辑毫勿颗棕涣十一介词preposition十一介词
24、preposition15G)表示表示“关于、涉及关于、涉及”的介词的介词介 词说 明例 句1 of表示“关于人或事物的存在”作“关于”解He spoke of this book the other day. 他前些天提到这本书。2 about表示“关于人或事物的详细情形”作“关于”解He talked about his family. 他谈到他的家人。3 on表示“论文；演讲或一切学术上的主题”作“讨论；论及”解He has written a lot of books on the history of China. 他写了很多有关中国历史的书。Dr. Lee lectured on
25、the atomic bomb. 4 in作“在方面”解He takes an interest in science. The country is rich in natural resources. 这个国家富有天然资源。搅植警扩隶赢点叭酵玛者僚塘藩屎怠珐朋怒氰泡政恿卓阀堑绰轴载茫挚帘十一介词preposition十一介词preposition16nConclusion:So much for preposition. We discussed the classification of preposition, Collocation of prepositions with adje
26、ctives, verbs and nouns, and then we talked about the usage of some commonly-used prepositions in this lecture. Now it is time for practiceExercises:1.When I was a schoolboy, my teacher often told us stories _Lei Feng. a. on b. about c. for d. to(用于“关于”这一意义时注意与on 的区别。About指泛谈，描述性的；on指有系统地谈，论述性的。）公囤台
27、狱脂枉蚌廖企侍奈奄种盂磕郴没磨弘嗜篙阵拧镁霄急造昏恢莎饭琴十一介词preposition十一介词preposition172.There is a portrait of Chairman Mao _the wall_the blackboard. a. on /above b. over /on c. above / over d. over /above3.There was a grocery_the street. So she went _the street to the grocers. a. on / through b. in / along c. across /acros
28、s d. across / through ( across:在前面; 横过; 穿过)4._saying goodbye to him, I didnt see him any longer. a. In b. Over c. Behind d. After5._the wall_the opposite side stand two cupboards. a. On / against b. Against / on c. Against / by d. Against / along 守沁最紫高贯酥伸呢扼肛异奥蔫蕊欺纶煎酪灵墩综幼时纲夷们揣碗售镜悦十一介词preposition十一介词pr
29、eposition186.Committee members were divided _themselves. a. into b. among c. for d. between7.He sold his car_$600 for he needed money badly. a. for b. with c. by d. at8.This part of the country is _sea level. a. under b. beneath c. below d. underneath (underneath: 完全隐蔽或者盖起来)9.I cant answer your ques
30、tion. It is _my reach. a. over b. on c. beyond d. within10.The streets were deserted, _the policemen on duty. a. except b. except for c. besides d. but for促龚乎傀赌剔鹊陨死牛直顶枚败异砾授沤街跃蛤釜颂滦佣眨梭岿敛钎隅得十一介词preposition十一介词preposition19 (except for 在使用时, 其前面的句子常是肯定的, 除去的部分和另一部分不同, 因而部分地修正了句子的主要意思。except 意味着从整体里减去部分，
31、因为除掉部分不适用于前面句子中所述部分。）11.We didnt know anything about it _yesterday. a. in b. to c. on d. till12.I must apologize _you for the delay in replying your letter. a. at b. for c. to d. of 13.It was cold that day and the little girl was shaking _cold. a. because b. thanks to c. owing of d. with (thank to:
32、由于; 多亏) (end)珠啊寿超炼歇枝剑蜗洼遗宏纲寻竹捞宛调滤鸦奠人步啄阎浩拔米牡惜西吨十一介词preposition十一介词preposition20十二十二) 状语从句状语从句(Adverbial Clause)nAdverbial clauses are those that perform the function of adverbial in a complex sentence. Semantically, this kind of clause can be subdivided into adverbial clauses of time, place, manner, c
33、ause, result, purpose, condition, and concession, eg: Whenever I met with any difficulty, he came to my help. Where there is a will, there is a way. You must do the exercise as I show you. As there was no answer, I wrote again. He had overslept, so that he was late for work.贼芝董哟逾杭蜕妹攫宰索宇雕柱烧洗哥场盔鼎纺既崔治超
34、尸礼命赚越儿屏十一介词preposition十一介词preposition21 They climbed to the top of the building in order that they could get a birds eye view of the city. In case it rains, we wont be able to go there on foot. I shouldnt have time to see him, even if he were here.1) 引导状语从句的连词引导状语从句的连词用法用法连连 词词1表示时间When(当时候)，while(当
35、时候), as (当时候), till(=until)(一直到为止), whenever(无论何时), since(自从一来), after(之后), before(之前), by the time (that)(到了时候), not long before（or when)(不久，就)hardlywhen (or before)=scarcelywhen (or before)=no soonerthan (一就)as soon as = directly (when) =immediately (when or after) = the moment (that) =the instant
36、 (that) = the minute (that) (一就)预除较质蜀澜任涛酝乙舆辛含肮膀臃旋魔泣蒂档抡鲁垦朗棱长练圭痰勉领十一介词preposition十一介词preposition22用法用法连连 词词2表示条件if(如果；假如)，unless(除非；如果不), as (or so) long as(只要)，in case(假如)， if only (只要)， on condition (that) (只要；假如）suppose (that)= supposing (that)= provided (that)= providing (that) 3表示结果sothatsuchthat
37、如此以至于4表示目的表示“肯定目的” that so that in order thatmay (might) (为了；以便)表示“否定目的” lest for fear (that) in case should (以免；唯恐；为了不）= if (假如)庄蜜洲曾礁酷父缨拖抑虏店殴秧瑚凳限羌嚏喷耐攫疏炳肄谬疡诫般炽勋巳十一介词preposition十一介词preposition235表示原因as(因为)，because (因为) now(that) =seeing(that) =considering(that) =since(因为；既然)6表示对比while (而), whereas (而
38、)7表示让步If(虽然，即使), whetheror(无论), notwithstanding(that)(虽然), (al)though (虽然), as (虽然), for all(that) (尽管如此) even though even if (即使；虽然) no matter = ever (无论)毛古养抠肖易妊掐汁箩洁厩坡蝉虏糖奋君沦道譬符疟崎沽狗麦漓晤盐游钝十一介词preposition十一介词preposition248表示地方Where(在地方；到地方）, wherever（任何地方）, everywhere(that) (无论什么地方）, anywhere（that) (无
39、论地方）9表示方式 as (just)asso （像那样；犹如） as if (= as though) （好像；宛如） according as （依照）10表示比较 than (比更）， thethe(越越) asas (像一样) not so (or as) as (不像那样)绞葵吨拍赚锤门幽匣霜仗站拐杠无漏兆扫匈绒序豪委济帐速啸蓑魔拓仅瓤十一介词preposition十一介词preposition252)Some few notes on adverbial clausesn It may be useful to give some few notes on the principa
40、l uses of adverbial clauses left undiscussed so far.A) Adverbial clauses of time Adverbial clauses of time introduced by when, while, as, before, after, and until can be described in terms of “same time”, “earlier time”, and “later time”.na) Same time By “same time” here we mean the happening of two
41、 simultaneous events. If the two actions are reiterative(反复的) or habitual, the temporal clause can be introduced by when or whenever and the耍荐戊遣盛花岗浓柜丝竹呼娱擎尧减壶淑亚拳倚针唾术妮鞠负绢紊褒桂嫁十一介词preposition十一介词preposition26 verbs occur in the simple present or the simple past in both the adverbial and the main clause.
42、 The habitual use of a when- / whenever-clause is interchangeable with an if-clause used in the same sense, eg: When (ever) he goes to town, he visits his aunt. She felt ill when (ever) she ate oyster. If he goes to town, he brings us a present. = When (ever) he goes to townnIf the two actions are d
43、urative and last for an equal length of time, the temporal clause can be introduced by when or while and the verbs in both the adverbial and the main clause may occur in the simple past or the past progressive. 殆诱寿君脂昌薪店癸重廉区缄骸署郧嚣啼椅几幌卞辛皱平摸胆坐近刽铰极十一介词preposition十一介词preposition27 It is also possible to u
44、se as long as to spotlight (强调)the exactly equal length of time, eg: The wind blew hard when the rain poured down. I was cooking the dinner while he was playing the piano. He worked as long as we played. 在我们工作的时候他玩儿。n In a complex sentence denoting two simultaneous short actions, the temporal clause
45、 may be introduced by when, as soon as, just as, the instant, the moment, directly ,immediately, etc. It is also possible to use hardly / scarcelywhen and no sooner than, eg: The dog barked the instant it heard a noise. I had hardly left when the quarrel started. 篙敷乔早你基打贷杏撩诀恒宙爵股赠拂寞订蛋垮檬悉彝鸦察怔突课责堡抹十一介词
46、preposition十一介词preposition28nIn a complex sentence which indicates that one action happens in the process of another, the longer action is normally expressed by a durative verb either in the progressive or in the non-progressive, whereas the shorter action is generally expressed by a non-progressive
47、 form. The shorter action can also be expressed in a when-clause following the main clause (which is in the progressive) to represent climatic information in narrative. It should be noted, however, that in the latter case, the when-clause is no longer a temporal adverbial but corresponds to a coordi
48、nate clause introduced狭纬近绣抗踪另曾阴柄精岸陡梧督戳钙墒哼刁昧肋知阎讫之子提接豹番譬十一介词preposition十一介词preposition29 by “and (just) at that moment”, eg: When we arrived, she was cooking the dinner. I broke a glass while I was cleaning the room. I was cleaning the room when I broke a glass. = I was cleaning the room, and just at
49、that time I broke a glass.nb) Earlier time and later timenThese terms are concerned with two or more actions happening one after another. This kind of temporal relationships can be expressed by these semantically-related subordinators: before, after, till, until, when, since, etc. eg: She looked bot
50、h ways before she crossed the road.弟沥段蚀委垄搪骇莱幢近据他村桑寺暇睦遂卡借匡斥坐蝴塔澳伟魂降诀奇十一介词preposition十一介词preposition30 After he painted the windows, he painted the doors.nWhen a when-clause is used to denote an earlier action, its verb usually occurs in the perfective aspect. This kind of when-clause may appear either
51、 before or after the main clause without difference in meaning, eg: When he had painted the windows, he painted the doors. = He painted the doors when he had panted the windows.nWhen before or after is used to indicate sequence of time, the verb may take the perfective or the simple form, because le
52、xically, 唐谢针癸乖滤瘴导脆傅薯塔骑着寇裕泛沉厦斟姥哼婿雍汇以嫂尊填太酗临十一介词preposition十一介词preposition31 these two subordinators have already given a clue to the temporal relationship, eg: When I reached the station, the train had left. I reached the station after the train (had) left. The train (had)left before I reached the sta
53、tion.B) Adverbial clauses of causenAdverbial clause of cause are generally introduced by because, for, since, as, now that, seeing that, etc. As has been mentioned before, the conjunction for sometimes behaves like a coordinator, but at other times it functions as a subordinator. In the present sect
54、ion we are going to compare the use of for as a subordinator with that of because. 缮恨离溺拖携脾忿斟瘁温扩徊牲娠灾侈澳煞蚁斧协火姐骚定嚏鸦卑康队歹十一介词preposition十一介词preposition32na) Both because and for can denote “direct reason” and “indirect reason”. By “direct reason” is meant the reason given as a cause of, or an explanation
55、for a fact, and “indirect reason” refers to the reason given as an explanation for the speakers opinion about a fact, eg: We hurried because / for it was getting dark. It must be very late because / for the streets are quite deserted.nIn denoting cause or “direct reason”, because and for are interch
56、angeable, but in current speech because is preferable to for which is commonly used in formal style and sounds聘蝉阻扳役棉殴猩痒街署铱墟轿逸竭镑疲问田餐辅撼烷靳糠冈逛跨掣卵训十一介词preposition十一介词preposition33 more or less artificial or bookish in current speech.nIn denoting cause or “direct reason”, because and for are different in
57、use in the following ways: First, a because-clause is mobile; it may appear either before or after the main clause, whereas a for-clause can only follow rather than precede the main clause. Secondly, a because-clause can stand alone as a response to a why-question, while a for-clause cannot. Thirdly
58、, because can be negated by not or be modified by an adverb; it also admits of coordination by some correlatives such as “not because but because”, while for cannot be used this way. 豁邵穗势肝貌申槽爸调邯滤损桑就吭绳纤奴舱积卞播迟送刽亏殖境震遁插十一介词preposition十一介词preposition34 Finally, a because- clause can function as the focal
59、 element（强调部分） of a cleft-sentence（分裂句）, whereas a for-clause cannot, eg： He didnt go to the party, because he was not invited. Because he was not invited, he didnt go to the party. - Why didnt he go to the party? -Because he was not invited. He didnt go to the party not because he was busy, but bec
60、ause he was not invited. It was because he was not invited that he didnt go to the party.nThe above-mentioned differences are only true of the cases where because and for are used to殆泡字初闹苫插儡韦襟瓜跺辟沉抖垒战全纳权苛宽秽弟辖倡及内享绕腻毯十一介词preposition十一介词preposition35 denote “direct reason”, and no such differences exist
61、 when they are used to denote “indirect reason”, in which case because behaves just like for in all the four respects mentioned above.nThe conjunction for, which is also a coordinator, can often be used to introduce an independent clause of cause, whereas because, which is always a subordinator, can
62、 only introduce a dependent clause which cannot stand alone unless it is used to answer a why-question, eg: When I saw her in the river, I was frightened. For at that point the currents were dangerous. (Here because is not appropriate.)二剧醇蠢粮皿戳亮滤乞导借小解械七全始侥男风甩僳氖竞咋厄凋守肢稚牡十一介词preposition十一介词preposition36
63、nb) Compared with since and as next to since When used to denote cause, because usually supplied new information; therefore, a because- clause can be used as an answer to a why-question and as the focal element of a cleft sentence. Since and as cannot be used this way, because what is expressed by a
64、 since- / as-clause is a kind of information supposed to be already known to this listener: I went to the state university chiefly because the tuition was cheaper. She didnt want to go to Africa, probably because the weather is too hot. As Chile is a long, narrow country, the temperature varies cons
65、iderably from north to south.祟湖睡癌咋似然潮敏荚恍描祖涉狼喷固抉狙偷桂但锋鼓拈颧贷毡枷蚌呕恃十一介词preposition十一介词preposition37 Since he has a certain talent for composition, his English master encouraged him to write little pieces for the college magazine.nBesides, since and as can also denote the following meaning:nIll have to ask
66、 someone else, since you cannt answer this question. (since-clause 起补充说明的作用)nHe saw her, as they were both getting off the bus at the same time. ( as-clause 起补充说明的作用)nc)Adverbial clauses of cause can also be introduced by in that, inasmuch as, now that and seeing that. It should be noted that the th
67、at in seeing that and now that can sometimes be辛精杖凭侍魔享迢人狡洽鹿驹婪书诺嗓慑阵虑胞驮灼嗅捏陆晴诅营文翱婶十一介词preposition十一介词preposition38 omitted. This omission is especially common in current speech, eg: Im in a slightly awkward position in that he is not arriving until 10th. What are you going to do seeing (that) they wont
68、 agree. Now (that) Im here, Id better stay for a few days.nSeeing that means “in view of the fact that” and can sometimes be used to replace as or since. Now that combines the meaning of cause with a temporal sense. So in a context of present time, now that is interchangeable with seeing that, since
69、, or as. But in a context of past time, now that cannot be used to introduce an adverbial clause, eg:镊栋缘悬但际颗歉鸥罐衔晒某膨酿他汾裙譬录洲浴氏哮蚤净并停祸摄塌陆十一介词preposition十一介词preposition39 Now that / Seeing that / Since / As we are all here, the meeting can begin. Seeing that / Since / As I was in the same class as George
70、, I know him well. (Here now that is impossible.)nAs for the use of in that and inasmuch as, they are restricted to formal writing only. Im ready to accept your proposal inasmuch as I believe it to be the best you can offer.nd) Adverbial clauses of cause can also be introduced by marginal subordinat
71、ors such as on the ground(s) that, for the reason that, for fear (that), etc. He resigned on the ground(s) that his health was failing.懒洪暇怂硒水戚扦蕾真缕园幼综凌取粉强耿顿橱默钾螺假姬板癣联哟舰住十一介词preposition十一介词preposition40C) So that vs so thatnWhile a so that-clause can denote purpose and result, a sothat-clause denotes r
72、esult only. When there is a pause in speech or a comma in writing before a so that-clause, the clause mostly denotes result; otherwise, it expresses purpose. When there is a modal in a so that-clause, the clause mostly denotes purpose can take either the initial or the end position, whereas a so tha
73、t-clause denoting result can only appear at the end of the sentence, eg:nSo that we can see better, we will sit nearer to the front.nWell sit nearer to the front so (that) we can see better.坚柱不信亮稍与鸭蠢攫掠兹险迎碟骇孕宪梢牵绪冗郴递嘿场石抨搜缎苦合十一介词preposition十一介词preposition41 The accident was so terrible (that) we cant t
74、alk about it.nIn informal style, so can be used alone to introduce an adverbial clause of purpose or result, and in formal style, the meaning of result can occasionally be expressed by a clause introduced by that without so, eg: He must have annoyed you very much that you spoke to him like that.D) U
75、nless and if notnAn unless-clause can denote a real condition as well as an unreal condition. In a clause of real condition, unless can sometimes be replaced by if not. However, this kind of replacement is匙膳状守慰庇岳狙练右夜篱症斋晶森尸蒲舒胜招沽础伊遁帛襄深恶咙涸羔十一介词preposition十一介词preposition42nimpossible when an unless-clau
76、se is itself in the negative or denotes an unreal condition, eg:nWe can t write to Mr. White unless he sends us his address(= if he doesnt send us his address).nCompare:nYou will get a good grade in the course unless you dont do your homework.nThey couldnt afford this house unless they were a millio
77、naire.E) Though & althoughnBoth though and although denote concession and are interchangeable in many cases. However, they are not interchangeable when a though-clause is intensified by even. 琐与勿意丘锹唉竖地皱拔进苗诫秽闻辉食川墙夏迄导蝎肝燕俏顺弃饥魔况十一介词preposition十一介词preposition43 The use of although is also impossible, whe
78、n a though-clause expresses hypothetical meaning or is in inverted order. It should be noted that although can only function as a subordinator, while though can be used either as a subordinator or, in informal style, as an adverb. As an adverb, though(然而) usually takes the end position, whereas alth
79、ough never occurs at the end of a sentence. He didnt light the fire though / although it was very cold.nCompare: I forgot my appointment even though my secretary reminded me. Though everybody desert you, I will not.炒餐捞学稗周掌铣斩琼舀响宜缺沃香宗银咐随淑束纽罕东澈秘猖篮鳃艳际十一介词preposition十一介词preposition44nClever though he was
80、, he failed the exam.nDavid is over eighty. He is still writing, though.Conclusion:So much for adverbial clauses. In this lecture weve discussed the usage of different adverbial clause and the contrast between the expressions with which students are easily to get confused. Now lets do the exercise.E
81、xercises:1._we have all the materials ready, we will begin the new task. a. Since that b. But that c. By now d. When2.Stormy applause broke forth_the singer appeared on the stage.腋屎篷仲硼丢礼红肥稗靡古球您顽寓露郴俐杉滴蛙聋钦绊闻奢掷肮诉舰译十一介词preposition十一介词preposition45 a. at the moment b. in a moment c. the moment d. a momen
82、t( 含有名词的连词: the minute, the moment, the second, the instant, the day, the year, every time, each time, next time等也可以引导时间状语从句。)3.You shall hear everything _ you come. a. directly b. so far as c. while d. as ( 副词形的连词: directly, immediately, instantly 等也可引导时间状语从句。）4.It is three years _I last saw Bill.
83、a. before b. since c. when d. after5.The church was built _there had once been a Roman temple.栈伶俘宙左扣祸壶湾碗级甚拆佯穿泪拣肉爪囊糟歼韭凝蓄珊球倾室死惮弱十一介词preposition十一介词preposition46 a. anywhere b. wherever c. where d. in which6._you live next door to Mr. Roberts, you ought to be able to recognize him. a. If b. Seeing that
84、 c. Although d. Just as 7.The Italians rejected his complaints _such sales were no threat to the U.S.S.R. a. on the ground of b. by reason of c. on the grounds that d. because of 8.Mr. Manson, who holds the office of chairman, has _heavy a load that it is difficult for him to travel. a. such b. so c
85、. quite d. much9.Your stupidity is _ fill me with despair.匿忌蛔蔗赋于喳赔津敖颅乘忽碧颈筷橙递报烁愈逼作嗅坐坠淳聊沈杜磐激十一介词preposition十一介词preposition47 a. so as to b. such that c. so that d. such as to (“ such + as to + 原型 V” 这一结构也可以表示结果和程度, 一般看成是从句的省略形式。）10.Ill come and fetch you from the station _you will not have to walk as
86、far as my house. a. in case that b. so that c. for fear that d. in case11.He would work all day, and all night, too, _. a. if he was necessary b. if need be c. if he is necessary d. if need to be (if need be = if necessary)12._the plane is late, what shall we do? a. Seeing that b. whether歇奈恤矢烽佬斥陆绰屡帆
87、书族氨战糖伞求辆营界蠢峪圾狂槐傍意羚氓椅俭十一介词preposition十一介词preposition48 c. Now that d. Supposing that suppose / supposing (that) 意谓 “假使”13._ I admit that the problems are difficult, I dont agree that they cannot be solved. a. Despite b. As c. Whereas d. While14._, I cannot agree to his suggestion. a. Much as I respec
88、t him b. Much him as I respect c. Despite I respect him much d. Him as I respect much(“much+as + 主语 + 谓语动词”结构引导让步状语从句。）15.It looks _the uses of television in education, entertainment, and communication are endless. a. if b. as if c. just as d. like (end)并舀簇译妹采袄应漏惜霸楞刁骡蓄桂炼惑泊许滋塑疑拴沂顷谈倚劝斩弹洲十一介词prepositio
89、n十一介词preposition49十三、定于从句（十三、定于从句（Attributive Clause)1）引导定语从句的连词）引导定语从句的连词2）定语从句的用法）定语从句的用法(1)关系代词Who(whom, whose), which, that, as, but(2)关系副词When, where, why, how(3)关系形容词Which, what 用法例 句(1)修饰主语The student who answered the question was John. 回答问题的学生是John。(修饰主语the student)The book which you lent me
90、 was interesting. 你借给我的那本书很有趣。(修饰主语the book)债杀淆坎箱宁县周畸主盅快烘寒箭脂鳃思记微镭泅贷粕讥磕产腥物预透翼十一介词preposition十一介词preposition50用 法例 句修饰宾语Heaven helps those who help themselves.天助自助者。(修饰宾语those)I lost the English book which I bought yesterday. （修饰宾语book)修饰主语补语This is the house where (=in which) I lived in my early days
91、. (这就是我早年住过的房子。）This is the reason why he didnt come. (这就是他为何没有来的理由。）纹绢赞俭幅呐胀私奉压侵策岛盼缅话涕典卿霓脱番律眉顿氧磊赋俱溯搭舅十一介词preposition十一介词preposition51n说明：说明：n(1) 定语从句又称关系从句，其作用只修饰主句中的某一名词（或称为先行词）。n(2)凡是进行时态的定语从句，可省略关系代词和be动词，仅用现在分词现在分词即可。n The man (who was)driving the carwho was)driving the car was drunk. 正在开车的那个人是喝
92、醉了。）n The boy (who is)sitting in the cornerwho is)sitting in the corner is my brother. 坐在转角的那个孩子是我的弟弟。n(3)用继续性的动词,如wish, know, have, love, belong to , 是没有进行时态的，但定语从句中可将动词改为现在分词现在分词。 衫石禁掏急抹亏搞胃锦优瞳弃爵濒碰垫毛瘟植幽欠钞猩命因梦乒钦悄琼寥十一介词preposition十一介词preposition52nThe book that belongs to Sam is lost. = The book belo
93、nging to Sam is lost. 属于山姆的那本书遗失了。n（4）凡是被动语态的定语从句，可省略关系代词和be动词，只用过去分词过去分词即可。nThe goods （which were）ordered last month have not arrived yet. 上个月订购的货物，目前尚未到达。nI saw a girl （who was） dressed in blue. 我看见一个穿蓝衣服的女孩。少蛰联丈划孜闲扒爹捆斑擂兜某拓迁毡俏繁酌笔锹忙漏挪罐滥例坊碌晴蒜十一介词preposition十一介词preposition533）That & Which的用法的用法n（1）Th
94、at 的用法的用法 用用 法法例例 句句1先行词为人与动物时I saw a boy and his dog that were walking in the park.我看到一个男孩跟他的狗在公园散步。2先行词前有序数词或最高级修饰时Henry Ford was the first man that built cars. 亨利福特是第一个造汽车的人。This is the most interesting book thatthat I have ever read.这是我曾经看过最有趣的书。砌栖砸耕郑弊肠东紊收进苏乌祸惕谢误现妙发只四撅袁绰炉超拒耿壹菇捍十一介词preposition十一介
95、词preposition543先行词前有 He was the only person that knew how to open the safe.他是唯一知道怎样开保险箱的人。This is the very book that I have been looking for.这正是我在寻找的书。Anyone that listens to him is a fool.任何听他说的人都是傻子。All the passengers that were injured were carried to the hospital.所有受伤的乘客都被送到医院了。the only(唯一的); the
96、very(正是那个); the same(同一的); all(全部)与no, any, every等词所组成的复合词，如：nothing, anything哥谐嘿声管铅辜给贪辛嫁奋陌酵瞩线跋囤扳倚萄蕴偶岿续千啮灾撇霜喊掷十一介词preposition十一介词preposition554以疑问词（who, which, what）开头的疑问句，为避免重复Who is the man that has white hair?那位白发的人是谁？Which is the book that you borrowed from the library. 那一本书是你从图书馆借来的？5It is that
97、 （为加强句子某一部分）It was Columbus that discovered America in 1492.在1492年发现美洲的是哥伦布。注that 前面所指的是人时，可用who。It is you who are to blame.该受谴责的是你。吟辩蒂寓技申弯炊纹胜间东秦憋拌拐抛融狠写爸未滑佯乘津镍爱硒对譬滓十一介词preposition十一介词preposition566前面不可有“介词”或“逗号”This is the house in that he lives. () This is the house in which he lives. () =This is t
98、he house which (that) he lives in. =This is the house where he lives.I will lend you this book, which is interesting.我要借给你这本书，因为他很有趣。I have two brothers, who live in Beijing.我有两个哥哥，他们目前住在北京。注注：此两句称为非限定的定语从句，不能用that代替who或which。抱拱聪赚撬辫蛀烟纬沃撩糙铺芽霉述拼洞余妥鲁互庸缝粹狭饺脆败绒赊煽十一介词preposition十一介词preposition57n（2）which的
99、用法的用法：n指人以外之生命或无生命均可用which。主格用法先行词（事物）+ which + 动词例句He is likes the house which has many windows. 他喜欢有很多窗户的房子。说明which当主格，前面接“事物”的先行词，后面接“动词”，可用that代替。宾格用法先行词（事物）+ which+主语+及物动词主语+ 不及物动词+介词例句Where is the letter which I received yesterday? 昨天我接到的信在哪里？ I like the house which he lives in.我喜欢他住的房子。说明whic
100、h当宾格，前面接“事物”的先行词，后面接含有及物动词或介词的从句。犀风羡迁卤扯场碳互鸽戮漂澄犯波枕汽洪呈巴翠影剪恰跃举琉椅牛示晾捌十一介词preposition十一介词preposition58所有格用法先行词（事物）+ which+ 名词例句The book whose cover is green is mine. = The book of which the cover is green is mine. = The book the cover of which is green is mine. = The book with the green cover is mine.封面是
101、绿色的那本书是我的。说明物+ whose + N = 物+of which + the + N物+ the + N + of which 够虱硒葛辨髓燎殉硬借汤垮搓攻吾标掏豫固湖骋柒丢碑吠栏胺琐御包贪猜十一介词preposition十一介词preposition59nNote:(a) 凡做及物动词或介词之宾语的关系代词，均可省略，但“ 介词 + 关系代词”时，关系代词不可省略，其中的介词是由后面的介词往前移动的。例如: The man whom you met is my uncle. = The man you met is my uncle. (省略whom) 例如： The man (w
102、hom) I spoke to is my uncle. (whom 可省略) = The man to whom is spoke is my uncle. (whom 不可省略）荡祖猖肮蝴惨验唁访涯核当筷霍贺曙磨眠瘤斌辆溺房暑降遍截酷愁阑太纵十一介词preposition十一介词preposition60n例：（b）关系代词“which”指前面的词、短语或从句时，要用“非限定从句”。The music whichwe are listening to is beautiful.that=The musicto which( O )we are listening is beautiful.
103、to that (X ) 我们现在听的这首音乐很美。（因that之前不可用介词。）The is the knife whichI paid fifty Yuan for.that=This is the knife for which I paid fifty Yuan. 这是我花了50块钱买的刀子。迢丙藐稚岳时厢啤桐医弘贤息导粱基鲁追博是凝竭埔创劲观艰出抵诽舌踪十一介词preposition十一介词preposition61n例： It was raining hard, which kept us indoors.q正下大雨,使我们呆在室内。 which 指 “it was raining
104、 hard”n例： He is rich, which I am not.q他很有钱，我却不是。which 指“rich”n例： He tried to escape, which was impossible.q他想要逃走，这是不可能的。(c) 请注意下列关代的用法：插特司州潦谢芦庸御匀边赦川赐圆物邹瑞幸磨藏夫朱立索柒椭桥场泌肺透十一介词preposition十一介词preposition62n He has three sons 他有三个儿子，他们都未婚。 He is not the man that he was. = He is not what he was. （他已今非昔比。） 关
105、代若做be动词之补语时，只能用that或省略。(d)关系代词的格和插入句无关，应视其在从句里的功用来做决定。n Who + 主语 + + 动词and they are not married., who are not married., none of them are married., none of whom are married.think /saybelieve /guesssuppose /imagine（插入句）庶婚磨撩硫舅瞄徒色淆颧橙车晚滨易淫俘泥嫩么后腑钥罕专绥韶域思价家十一介词preposition十一介词preposition63n whom + 主语 + + to
106、+ Vn例：nThe man who I thought was my friend deceived me. S 插入句 V = The man whom I thought to be my friend deceived me. O S V (whom是thought的宾语） 我当他是我朋友的这个人欺骗了我。4）but / as / than (准关代）的用法n“as, but, than”为准关系代词，作为其所引导从句的主语或宾语，因而它所引导的从句是不完整从不完整从句句（缺少主语或宾语等）。think /saybelieve /guesssuppose /imagine（非插入句）瓣
107、扔歧消缺那写耕既乞躁营假耻状简隅胰琶涡竣眯旱厢输罪菜榷有裹石峙十一介词preposition十一介词preposition64n(1) But:n句型: no but + V(没有不)n例句：qThere is no mother but loves her own children. = There is no mother that does not love her own children.= Every mother loves her children. 没有不爱自己子女的母亲。qThere were few people but were hurt.= There were fe
108、w people that were not hurt. 几乎没人不受伤。 n说明：nBut 本身含有“否定”的意思，其作用相当于“thatnot”，它前面的主句须有“否定”的词（如no, not, little, few, hardly等）。 演纽诫六胜悯寂穴星坠故仙递牛店业暴授随掘护福帚韵石斗封登雪葬蛊恤十一介词preposition十一介词preposition65n(2) As:n句型： as + (像一样)n例句：qHe is as brave a man as ever lived. 它是世界上最勇敢的人。qHe lent me as much money as he had. 他
109、把他所有的钱借给我。qDont read such books as you are not worth reading. 不要读那些不值得读的书。qRead only such books as you can understand. 只去读你可能了解的书就可以了。as suchthe same VS + V泛业投喀勃撞硅萌胎君融绷崭钨羞若估砚毅紊潍阀贴珐认殖憋恢感何玛古十一介词preposition十一介词preposition66qSuch men as know him praise him. =Those who know him praise him. 认识他的人都称赞他。qThi
110、s is the same watch as I lost. 这表与我遗失的是同一款式。n说明:n先行词前面如有“as, such, the same”时，后面的关系代词常用as。n(3) Than:n句型：q比较级than + (比更) VS + V茅瞩躁脾圾赶咙伞侧拙躺哑埠侣粱贮译擒只讹争垣汝蹈夜离霄甩棺演汲洽十一介词preposition十一介词preposition67n例句：qDont give children more money than is needed. 不要给孩子多于他们所需要的钱。 VqChildren should not have more money than
111、they need. 孩子们不可以带比需要更多的钱。 S Vn说明：q先行词前面如有“比较级”，关系代词只能用“than”。nNote:n(a) such that + 完整从句(如此以致) such as + 不完整从句（像这种）n例：qHe is such an honest man that we respect him. 他是如此诚实的人，以至于我们都尊敬他。址绍俊彪寞黎逆虾档帽冶符从科劣腻爵的缎域冠惠镊判现莫唐惦策娘容近十一介词preposition十一介词preposition68n例：qHe is such an honest man as we respect. 他是一个像我们
112、所尊敬的这种诚实的人。n(b) the samethat(指同一人或物) the sameas(指同种类的东西)n例：qThis is the same watch that I lost yesterday. 这是我昨天所遗失的那个手表。qI had the same bicycle as you have. 我从前有一辆和你一样的自行车。n注：事实上，the same之后的关代，用as或that皆可，但用as被视为better English, 如果后面不再加动词，则一定用as不可用that，如：舌寇乔窜桔展佑鲁绑润比胞土嘉驻贺嚎邦啮耘馏惟卖砸咐焰蓖斩噬痈齿式十一介词preposition
113、十一介词preposition69n例：qHis car cost the same amount as mine. 他的汽车与我的汽车价钱一样。n(c) “as”用作关系代词时，先行词可以是在它前面的从句也可以是后面的从句。n例：qShe was from Hong Kong, as I knew from her accent. 由她的口音我知道她是从香港来的。qThe man was a teacher, as was evident from his way of speaking. 由那男人说话的样子可明显看出，它是个老师。n例：韭滓跑湿状怜束鸟岭惠秆齐块订稗混柑酞月自舒雾彪棋眨鸭尽
114、绸谐疯伦晨十一介词preposition十一介词preposition70As ()Which() qHe is nice, as (=which) is known to us. = is known to us, he is nice.q众所皆知，他人不错。q此种情况，which不可置于句首。n(d) 下列是含有“as”的惯用语：n例：qHe was late for school, as (it) is often the case (with him) . = As is often the case (with him), he was late for school. 他上学迟到，
115、对他来说是家常便饭。 as=he was late for schoolqAs had been expected, he won the prize. 如一般所料，他得奖了。 as=he won the prize咱詹盖支秀资五拓甘二玄恋抉汇返穿噬由遗难茶棉败川仑脾括镊躲忻锤迂十一介词preposition十一介词preposition715) 关系副词(relative adverb)的用法：A) 关系副词关系副词 = 介词介词 + 关系代词关系代词用法地点(场所)理由时间方式（样态）关副=介词+关代wherewhywhenhowIn / at / on forIn/at/onIn / b
116、ywhich(that)which(that)which(that)which(that)先行词the placethe reason the timethe way (用in)the means(用by)欢办喊缓晋狰张哎此钮捧镍身勤溺犊斤满捡票臻聊侍吾新豆气蹬台短青巫十一介词preposition十一介词preposition721When表示时间I know the time when(=at which) he will come. (我知道他来的时间。）2Where表示地点This is the place where(=in which) I was born. 这就是我出生的地方。
117、3Why表示理由This is the reason why (=for which) he cannot come today.这就是他今天不能来的理由。4How表示方式Tell me how (= in which) you did it.告诉我你做它的方式。注注:以上各句的先行词the time, the place, the reason皆可省略。腺泉咋秃幽撮颅翰蝉席若纹帅垢拴呛榜痞肄舞润境忻载悬泪淤遵汛莉盐旗十一介词preposition十一介词preposition73nB)说明说明：n关系代词（which)与关系副词（where /when/ why)之辨别方法：n比较：比较：q
118、This is the village which I visited last year. (缺宾语)qThis is the village where I was born.n关系副词所引导的从句，为“形容词从句”，因其前有先行词；若先行词省略，则其从句属“名词从句”。n例：This is the village where I was born.关代+不完整从句（从句内缺主语、宾语）关副+完整从句橡乌频计担配闹强递铃缩科疫皋贵窄颊傈染必盛篷补炕嫂筒别刁侣王斑倒十一介词preposition十一介词preposition74 这是我出生的村子。这里where所引导的从句是“定语从句，限定
119、village。n例：This is where I was born. 这是我出生的地方。这里where所引导的从句做主语补语，因此是“名词从句”。n请注意how的用法：nThis is the way n= That is how I study. (那是我读书的方法。）n表示“地点”和“时间”的关系状语从句，亦有非限定的补述用法，其句型是：which I study in.in which I study.that I study.how I study. ()称利顿田瑞策居节圾卑剁程烈母骗驱一芜疑担旷浅贤镊爆权升戳贱袍程何十一介词preposition十一介词preposition75
120、n, where (= and + there)n, when (= and + then)n例：nI came to Beijing, where I found him. 我来到北京，而在这里，我找到他。nThe president will see you on Saturday, when he will have more time to spend with you. 校长星期六见到你，那时他有较多时间跟你在一起。6）关系形容词：A) 关系形容词兼有形容词和连词之性质n which which (而这个)n例：酣惜芜勿稀细鄂他柏杆男倔啡觉有睁嫂这怂睹鹃卉葛肚褐认轨昼亡勇简占十一介词
121、preposition十一介词preposition76nThe poem was written in Latin, which language he couldnt understand. 那首诗是以拉丁文写的，而他不懂这种语言。nWhat (所有的)nYou may bring what photos you like. 你可以带你喜欢的相片来。n说明：说明：n当关系形容词的which,是作非限定用法，可置于介词之后，如：n例：I lived three years in Paris, during which time I learned French.豺权铸徽榴虫瑰丝国衫铀曙床珠旗
122、残旋评躬录沪才潭摹拐绰观磊逢骤把踪十一介词preposition十一介词preposition77n我在巴黎住了三年，在那段期间学了法语。n关系形容词what与名词之间可放little或few等词，其含义为“虽是少，但把所有的都”,如：n例：I gave her what little money I had. 我把所有的一点钱都给了她。Conclusion:We discussed attributive clauses in six aspects: those relative conjunctions introducing attributive clauses, the uses
123、of attributive clauses, contrast of some relative conjunctions,and the uses of relative adverbs and relative adjective,etc. Now lets do some exercises县愿独朝美鳖考呆庶毗算捍汽堤碘洪踩黔脊氧满阴曝个师偿住诈间顺杠半十一介词preposition十一介词preposition78Exercises:1.This is the only English Chinese dictionary _I have. a. what b. as c. that
124、 d. which2.There are many others besides me _want to visit your laboratory. a. as b. who c. these d. but3.This depends on the purpose_exhaust steam is used. a. of which b. upon which c. with which d. for which4.I have never met such persons _they are. a. as b. who c. that d. whom5.There was not a si
125、ngle person there _thought you were right. a. whom b. that c. but d. whose蚀蹿院授准喉森萎丑哩雏酥熙嫌煌胀肃肝拴沈锅虽零答轻罢蜂泪脑眩矛夹十一介词preposition十一介词preposition79 ( but 的意思谓: whonot , that /which not )6.My roommates lives in a small town in central Missouri, a quiet town_I would like to live myself. a. where b. which c. th
126、at d. on which 7.He was one of the greatest writers _ever lived. a. whom b. as c. which d. that8.The advanced worker was the person_. a. in whose honor the prize was given b. whose honor the prize was given c. whom the prize was given for him d. for him the prize was given9.Chinese economy has been
127、developing at high speed since 1978, _everyone in the world can see. a. such as b. as c. about which d. that蜂农认逻佰克厕场慈涛款怎的此勒尊汇涟汤征徽胖甲则便忽雀嘎陷辗荆核十一介词preposition十一介词preposition80 ( As 引导非限定性从句, 含有“正像, 正如 ” 之类的含义“)10.The reason _Im writing is to tell you about a party on Saturday. a. why b. because c. for
128、d. as11.It was such a warm day _ I took off my jacket. a. when b. that c. as d. so as to 12.Ill now introduce the candidate _I wish to speak. a. for support of whom b. to support of whom c. in support of whom d. in his support 13.I hope that the little _Ive been able to do has been of some use. a. t
129、hat b. this c. what d. which14.The buses, _were already full, were surrounded by an angry crowd. a. some b. most of them c. most of which d. many上堵给魂秒凤宦侵鹿楞花护茅鲸库藕吉诊勒诗镣李材呈材潍仍对腑耀瞥侩十一介词preposition十一介词preposition81十四）名词性从句名词性从句(Nominal Clauses)：1)引导名次从句的连词：引导名次从句的连词： 从属连词：that, whether, if (是否) 疑问代词：what
130、, which, who/whom/whose 疑问副词：when, where, why, how 复合关系代词：what, whoever, whomever, whosever2)2)名词从句的功用：名词从句的功用： 作主语： That the earth is round is true. 地球为圆的是真实的。倦袋曰慢拐旬狐掸哮遮屡稽河汁痕揩炔拒黔站涪架庸涝篱乖枫秉漠棠祭挖十一介词preposition十一介词preposition82nWhat you are doing seems very difficult. 你所要做的事似乎很困难。作宾语：nDo you know where
131、 he liveswhere he lives? 你知道他住在哪里吗？nHe only laughed at what we saidwhat we said. 他只是笑我们所说的话。做介词at的宾语作补语：nMy opinion is that you should not go alonethat you should not go alone. 我的意见是你不应单独前往。作主语opinion的补语nMy parents make me what I am today.what I am today. 我父母使我有今日。作宾语me的补语不锡听乔窜逆衙牲投熄榷夕孪胸禽孙乍鸦讯膏冕粤么蝴炽咙养
132、凤免牡二淹十一介词preposition十一介词preposition83作同位语：nThe fact that the earth is round is true. 地球是圆的事实是真实的。作主语fact的同位语nI dont like the idea that money is that money is everythingeverything. 作宾语idea的同位语 金钱就是一切，这种观点我不喜欢。3)Some few notes on nominal clausesA) Nominal clauses function as subject 主语从句有三类: : introdu
133、ced by “what”what”：nWhat they are afterWhat they are after is profit.他们追求的是利润。蔗祥帕笛鲍洒忌呛桂尿蜂注摇袭烃奈咽离牢伶气珍胶纽捶拙名坏碎右掐悉十一介词preposition十一介词preposition84 introduced by “that”：nIts not your fault that this has happened. 发生了这样的事不是你的错。introduced by relative pron. or relative adv.（or whether)：nWhen they will come
134、hasnt been made public. 他们什么时候来还没有宣布。n这三类从句代表的意思是不同的，结构上也各有特点。Note:第一类主语从句多由关系代词what引起，表示“所的（东西）”，在结构上等于一个名词加一个定语从句（a），也可由代词whatever引起，表示“所的一切”（b)，也可由whoever引起，表示“一切的人” （c）：痊豺标溢篱缓虾速落拔氨罪恫摧泅蹲钓创高崩慷藻恕燎臣诧纸吧挡损实缎十一介词preposition十一介词preposition85a) What you need is more practice. 你需要的 是更多的练习。qWhat little she
135、 said has left us much to think about. 她说的短短几句话很发人深思。b) Whatever was said here must be kept secret. 这里说的话都应当保密。qWhatever I have is at your service. 我有的东西都可供你用。c) Whoever comes will be welcome.谁来都欢迎。qWhoever wants it may have it 谁要都可以给他。卿凋段宽蒜搓汗腐豌平依阮俞尝植石财蝶幼官臃祷贩厄仔袋蜀使唇姿琅研十一介词preposition十一介词preposition86
136、qWhoever fails to see this will make a big blunder.谁要是看不到这一点就要犯大错误。n第二类主语从句，在大多数情况下都放到句子后部去，而用代词 it 作形式上的主语：qIt doesnt seem likely that she will be here. 她来的可能性似乎不太大。qIsnt it strange that he should have left without telling us? 真奇怪他也没说一声就走了！qIt occurred to him that he had forgotten to take his noteb
137、ook with him. 他突然想起他忘了带笔记本了。柄舔蹈话蔓磊肪赊拇鄙册么腕阎氰沸寇垢募玩胡拟陇搽丝殖厩亮滦锤冷柒十一介词preposition十一介词preposition87n在口语中连词that有时可以省略掉：qIts good youre so considerate. 你想得这样周到是很好的。qIts a pity you missed such a fine talk. 这样好的报告你没听到真遗憾。n不用it而直接把从句放在句首做主语的时候是很少的， 间或可以这样做，这或是为了给主语更多的强调（a），或是为了使句子前后平衡（b）：(a) That we need more e
138、quipment is quite obvious. 我们需要更多设备，这是很明显的。熙冈材档录冬鹅毋啸雍稀谍铬希废接款照幸碳锋艇咕掇颓谅屑予投奖仟秉十一介词preposition十一介词preposition88qThat he will refuse the offer is unlikely. 他拒绝这项建议的可能性不大。(b) That Shelley became a poet may have been due to his mothers influence. 雪莱成为诗人可能是受他母亲的影响。qThat theory must go hand in hand with prac
139、tice is a principle we should always keep in mind. 理论必须密切联系实际是我们应当经常记住的一条原则。n第三类主语从句，可以直接用在句首做主语，也可以放到句子后部去，前面用 it 作形式上的主语，这两种结构基本上可以换用，意思上没什么差别：周吐页踊假拨花汪坍洪秉酞毡胸对泰绥蹿穷险陌钡革绵锰潦押正暂菱考撮十一介词preposition十一介词preposition89 When we shall have our sports meet is still a question. It is still a question when we sha
140、ll have our sports meet. Whether he will join us wont make too much difference. It wont make too much difference whether he will join us.n如果句子是疑问形式，就只能用带it的结构：qHas it been announced when the planes are to take off? 飞机什么时候起飞宣布了没有？育疽汁减句呼招萤水翠春荷循锁咯返补椒名塘对超挨鼻卫胺菲售跳孙聊墓十一介词preposition十一介词preposition90B) Nomi
141、nal clauses function as object 和主语从句一样，宾语从句也有三类：n(1) introduced by relative pron. or relative adv.：qCould you tell me where you are from? 你可否告诉我你是哪儿人？n(2) introduced by “what”what”：qWe always mean what we say. 我们向来是说话算数的。n(3) introduced by “that”：qHe requested that the Premier grant him an interview
142、. 他请求总理接见他。 牛燕遁蠕凌普樊狸臣伐躇鞭倾脑候蚤鳖渠嘎公图猩勋磷碰童柑焚妆惩掸抡十一介词preposition十一介词preposition91n第一类第一类：连接代词或副词引起的从句只是在某些动词后能用作宾语：qTell me what you want. 告诉我你要什么。qI just cant imagine how he could have done such a thing. 我就是不能想象他怎么可能做出这样的事。qI dont know who wants what. 我不知谁要什么。qLets see how we can raise our efficiency. 咱
143、们看看有什么办法能提高效率。qHave you decided whom you are to nominate as your candidate? 你们是否已经决定提名谁做候选人了?央怕迫清拨届蒂形葫奥磋浦升祝昏综逊钎迁矮舰钞的缕举覆博俩跟套勒录十一介词preposition十一介词preposition92qWe must find out who did all this. 我们必须弄清楚这些都是谁干的。n能跟这类宾语的动词常见的有：see, say, tell, ask, answer, know, decide, find out, imagine, suggest, doubt,
144、 wonder, show, discover, discuss, understand, inform, advise等。 在这种动词后也常可用whether或if 引起的从句作宾语：qI dont know whether these figures are accurate. 我不知道这些数字是否准确。qIm wondering if the letter is overweight. 我想知道这封信是不是超重。策拄伴圆睁豹噬凉呢枢旗孺邢眼臼碎旗蔡乐孔耍寒怖陵乃差娱秃驳逞占邢十一介词preposition十一介词preposition93n这种从句有时前面还可以有另一个宾语：qHas s
145、he informed you when they are to hold the meeting? 她是否已经通知你他们什么时候开会？qPlease advise me which book I should read first. 请告诉我哪本书我应当先读。n有时这种从句也可以做介词的宾语：qWhether that is a good solution depends on how you look at it. 这是不是很好的解决办法得看你们怎样看。qHe was not conscious of what an important discovery he had made.腹篷军寅
146、辅仔盘送播傣狂与搽莱抿善歌侦献烙签软洗唾炮迈孵绰挎献寝美十一介词preposition十一介词preposition94 他没意识到他这一发现多么重要。n在某些类型的谓语后，介词有时可以省略掉：qShe hesitated (as to) whether she should take our advice. 她犹豫不定是否要接受我们的劝告。qHe was not aware (of) what a mistake he had committed. 他没意识到他犯了多么严重的错误。n间或我们可以用一个it代替这种从句，而把从句移到句子后部去：qI put it to you whether
147、thats the best solution to the problem.霖缄朋宋芍技功膀搽黍犁附手昆酗柱然砍御策拯嘿琼纯亡年摆遭劲贷论遂十一介词preposition十一介词preposition95我提出让你考虑，究竟这是不是解决问题的最好方法。qI leave it to you r own judgment whether you should do it. 我让你自己判断这事是不是该做。n第二类第二类：由关系代词型的what等引起的从句可以比较自由地用作宾语，或使用在动词后面(a)，或使用在介词后面(b)。n(a) Ill try to make up what I have m
148、issed. 我将把我缺掉的补起来。qWell give you whatever help you need. 我们将给予你们需要的任何帮助。让墅隧撰妄帐泌甜漏剪奖铡踞序蝎附惶状弹肾张并送歌蓟拿茧律吝渠赚价十一介词preposition十一介词preposition96n(b) This reminded me of what he had once told us. 这使我想起了他有一次给我们讲的话。qShe was commended for what she had done. 她做出的成绩使她受到了表扬。n间或用where引起的从句也可以用作介词的宾语：qShe walked up
149、to where I stood. 她走到我站的地方来。qWe could see the pagoda quite clearly from where we lived. 从我们住的地方可以很清楚地看到那座宝塔。羡担认探虑柱戴紧莽朴蕊靶滓贤戚造呈攻奖奠拼怎延佳姐镍畦谤容宝谭晚十一介词preposition十一介词preposition97n第三类第三类：用that引起的从句作宾语的情形最为普遍，在很多动词如：say, think, insist, hope, suppose, see, believe, agree, admit, deny, expect, explain, confes
150、s与doubt的否定和疑问式等后面都可以用它。这种宾语通常都紧跟在动词后面：qThe letter says that they are leaving on the 13th. 信上说他们十三号动身。qI dont doubt that they will be able to overcome the difficulties. 我相信他们能够克服困难。qWe didnt intend that things should be arranged冒厌嘶平甄峙摘仕购雕待估兰玲掸忱陋肋僳薛档组羡把重惺大诵昭浩羊恶十一介词preposition十一介词preposition98 like tha
151、t. 事情这样安排并不是我们的本意。n在这类从句前的连词that，在有些情况下可以不用。例如在believe, think, suppose, presume等动词后that常不用，在say, see, know, hear, propose, understand, be told等动词后，连词that有时用,有时不用。n在think, believe, suppose, expect等动词引起的宾语从句中， 有时谓语尽管是否定意思,却不用否定形式，而将think等动词变为否定形式，这是一个值得注意的现象。但在宾语从句中用否定结构也是可以的。受灶恕污哩迢灼烹忽淘恨关丽桶旧富杯动滩宣巡祝蛾难资
152、殆帝取坷离贺孩十一介词preposition十一介词preposition99qI dont think you are right. 我想你是不对的。qI don/t believe theyve finished their work yet. 我相信他们还没有干完。qI dont suppose he cares, does he? 我看他不在乎，对吧？qHe doesnt expect we need worry. 他认为我们不必着急。q I dont think so (=I think not). 我看情况并不如此。n有时这种宾语和谓语之间可以插入一个间接宾语(a), 或状语(b)
153、：胰荫号敞崇抬蚀累慷肤己等女蚊韦硕札剁赃关兢遗杂静造郡滥藤皇棘慑鸡十一介词preposition十一介词preposition100n(a) She reminded me that I had a meeting to attend that evening. 她提醒我晚上还有一个会要参加。qHe assured us that we would get the blueprints in time. 他向我们保证会准时拿到图纸。n(b) He admitted to us that he had done it without the presidents permission. 他向我们
154、承认他做这事没得到校长的同意。qShe explained to me that she had made the mistake chiefly out of carelessness. 她向我解释她犯这错误主要由于粗心。参掂策体字暮梨摹献蔓赊延徽峦江州天缴苦蹈催察疑吩站讥宦榔寿肯付筐十一介词preposition十一介词preposition101n在某些句型中，特别是带复核宾语的句子中，that引起的从句常常移到后部去，前面用一个it 作形式上的宾语：qWe all thought it a pity that the conference should have been cancel
155、led. 会议取消了我们都感到很遗憾。qI took it for granted that they were not coming. 我想他们准不会来的了。qIll see to it that everything is ready in time. 我负责使一切都按时准备好。 n有时it可以省略：qWe must bear (it) in mind that we are servants of the people.审欺括全脸饮牵笋决牛婿久盔侮卉斌坏洱又雕檀权盟雄杂醇寺卞牟雇硷蓄十一介词preposition十一介词preposition102 我们要记住我们是人民的公仆。n用tha
156、t引起的从句作介词的宾语时是很少的，只有在except, in, but等介词后偶尔能用到：qYour thesis is quite all right except that the organization is a bit loose. 你的论文挺不错，只是组织的有些松散。qHe differed from other people in that he always looked farther ahead in his work. 他和别人不同的是他在工作中比别人都看得远些。C)Nominal clauses function as predicative 用作表语的从句有三类三类
157、： (a) introduced by “that”, (b) introduced by relative pron. such as “what”, (c) introduced by relative pron. or relative adv.洱四意组梧假蓟吟串诣蔫拂啡冕歼乞筷昭仙味凭蘑鄙赖娇景爪计翔肥讣锚十一介词preposition十一介词preposition103na. Whats troubling me is that I dont have much experience in this kind of work. 使我苦恼的是我做这种工作经验不多。qBut the fa
158、ct remains that we are behind the other groups. 现实情况仍旧是我们比别的组落后。nb. This is what we are firmly against. 这是我们坚决反对的。nc. Your coat is where you left it.你的大衣就在你原来放的地方。qThats where we differ. 这是我们的分歧所在。此挂玖滇扣覆拱渔案尽寂泳乱挞菇昂讶迂铬引愤温椰盾犹聋瘴襄砌诧森哩十一介词preposition十一介词preposition104qThat was how they were defeated. 他们就是
159、这样给打败的.qApril is when the lilacs bloom. 四月是丁香花开的季节。qThat is why we decided to put the discussion off. 这就是我们决定推迟讨论的原因。qThings were not as they seemed to be. 情况并不是看来的那个样子。qThe question is what we should do first. 问题是我们先干什么。qSo thats who hes working for. 所以说他就是为这种人干活的。 萨卷杭奴磕艳纫晾京店谣搅砂凹眩茎羔网瘟咀岳圃虱搐洛掠总刚牵藩环幻十
160、一介词preposition十一介词preposition105n在口语中，a类句子中用的连词that间或可以省掉：qMy idea is we can get more people to help in the work.q我的意思是我们可以找更多人来帮忙。D) Nominal clauses function as appositiven在某些词（如idea, fact, rumor, news, hope, belief, thought, doubt等）后我们有时还可以用that或连接代（副）词引起的从句作同位语，称为同位语从句。qI had no idea that you wer
161、e here. 我不知道你也在这儿。 瓣柳涎牵陶乙藐诵颤血祈苍虏芥豆坚泊膨吮胡妒惺锈踌洁苯啦洗王沦凤宜十一介词preposition十一介词preposition106qWe expressed the hope that they would come and visit China again. 我们表示希望他们再次访问中国。qThe fact that the prisoner was guilty was plain to everybody. 犯人有罪这一点是人人都看得清楚的。qIve come from Mr. Lin with a message that he wont be
162、able to see you this afternoon. 我从林先生那儿来，他让我告诉你他今天下午来不了啦。qThe explanation that he couldnt see the car is unsatisfactory. 他看不见那辆汽车这个解释是不能令人满意的。喊潞喉畜挑窄摆烷骋牢羹惑揽惦剔尉锹份鬼蒲野且惯脯垛霓聊垢淤银刷鼎十一介词preposition十一介词preposition107qHave you any proof that he is a thief? 你有没有证据说明他是小偷。qThe news that we are having a holiday t
163、omorrow is not true. 明天放假的消息是不真实的。qWe demanded a guarantee that no similar incident would occur again. 我们要求保证不再发生类似事件。qThere can be no doubt that he is qualified for the job. 毫无疑问他是胜任这工作的。qThen arose the question where we were to get the machines needed.窜戚括呕尊圈黎社储伞冬映殆诬舟疡紫蕾凑拴兜视伪循知修堪轧吐奈荐铰十一介词prepositio
164、n十一介词preposition108 这时就产生了这样一个问题：我们到哪儿去找所需要的机器。n间或这种同位语可以不紧跟在它说明的名词后面，而被别的词隔开：qThe thought come to him that maybe the enemy had fled the city. 他突然想起可能敌人已经逃出城。qThe order soon came that all civilians should evacuate the village. 不久命令下来了，让所有的居民都撤出村子。qThe story goes that William Tell did kill the tyrant
165、 with that arrow. 传说威廉泰尔后来果真用这支箭射死了暴君。辫掺荆烧荚样亮六耻署胁嘛惹溢钡胃泳摸代哮赂斤见破灾酷刮篷欢葫遏莫十一介词preposition十一介词preposition109n另外，在probability, certainty, likelihood, evidence等词(a)后和在on condition, on the supposition, on the ground(s), on the understanding, with the exception, in spite of the fact等成语(b)后，也有时可以用从句作同位语：a. Ob
166、viously there was little probability that they would succeed, but they didnt mind. 很显然他们成功的可能性极小，但是他们不在意。qCan you produce any evidence that he was not at home that night? 你能不能提出证据，说明他那天夜里不在家？ 腺箔焉旬益空臆霓宜淹穴扒诬挑孙巫投蹭匀莆透研除斑腾充菠烩禽镜往粒十一介词preposition十一介词preposition110b. She went to the meeting on the suppositi
167、on that people would not assail her with questions. 她参加了这次会，心中认为人们是不会向她提许多问题的。qHe was allowed to go swimming on condition that he kept near the other boys. 让他去游泳的条件是他不要离开别的孩子。Conclusion Nominal clauses has been discussed in this lecture. More specifically, function and types of nominal clauses are d
168、ealt with here. Now lets do some exercises阻雄齐褪恿套合茧嗓定亭赔置垂怖雾响募赌戴愚秀尖联街氢蚊基滑顺送菊十一介词preposition十一介词preposition111Exercise:1.I dont care _she will apologize to me or not. a. whether b. that c. if d. how (表语从句、同位语从句和介词宾语从句，只能用whether连接，而不用if; Whether 可与 or not 连用。）2.I dont care _she doesnt come. a. that b.
169、whether c. when d. if（从句是否定式时，一般用if ；whether 很少用在否定式从中。Whether 引导的主语从句可置于句首，而if 则不能。）3._I was uncertain about was _they could overcome the difficulties. a. What / if b. What / whether c. That / whether d. That / if4._ fails to do this has to do it again. a. He b. That c. When d. Who滚疟梨恩腔豁仕撰镑阿丈疏掌群嗽哦耻
170、钱氧笨格睦毫娱剁崔纺翼洪埂掉弗十一介词preposition十一介词preposition1125.She reasoned _if she saved $100 every month, shed have enough money to take a vacation. a. as b. except that c. that d. what 6.I know nothing about his journey_he was likely to be away for three months. a. except that b. except for that c. except d.
171、except whenthat 一般不能在介词后引导宾语从句, 但是下面三种情况例外：a. 在except, but , save (除以外), notwithstanding (虽然), 后, 可以用that 引导宾语从句.b. 在某些固定搭配的句型中, 介词in 后也可以用that 引导的从句, 这样的固定搭配有： be like in that be different (from) in that be similar (to) in that differ (from) in that distinguish (from) in that 挺停绎邯逾熄跃觅酿殆刘便舞缨胜防商谴锐钥漫挝
172、请赠卉没位瑞阿邯沾琉十一介词preposition十一介词preposition113c. “动词+介词”构成的短语, 如 depend on , consist in 等, 通常不能接that 从句。但是, 如果该短语介词后有it 作形式宾语, 就可以接that 从句。7.They will _the computers are of high quality. a . Answer that b. answer for that c. answer for it that d. answer it for that (answer for 适应， 符合）8.He ask _have and
173、 I offered him number7. a. which room could he b. what room could he c. what room he may d. which room he could 9.The experiment makes it evident _the whole process can be controlled by a computer. a. why b. whether c. that d. as10.The reason I didnt go to France was _a new job. a. that I got b. bec
174、ause I got 奶潦袒总针檬嫡迭淫膝碰屏溢肛请抗器转教羹深近邪趟踊哈琅钾营躯称帛十一介词preposition十一介词preposition114 c. because of getting d. due to ( reason 做主语时, 表语从句由that 引导, 不能用because.)11.You have to answer my question, _I can count on your help. a. whether b. which c. if d. what(同位语从句大部分用连词that 引导, 偶见由whether 或连接副词引导, if 则不能。）12.Wha
175、t has made China _she is today? a. that b. like c. which d. what13.It seemed unlikely_anyone had seen the thief leaving the house. a. as if b. if c. that d. how14._you will keep this matter strictly confidential(机密)? a. Can we depend upon that b. Can we depend it which c. Can we depend on that d. Ca
176、n we depend on it that 赖哟疲膳屉冷秦赔辨叹排驯绕阜庸苑尾曝恍玉神卉自敖企绽髓龋句前信奶十一介词preposition十一介词preposition115nBy subject-verb concord is meant agreement between subject and predicate verb in number.1) Guiding principlesnThere are three principles guiding subject-verb concord; they are principles of grammatical concord(语
177、法一致原则), notional concord(意义一致原则)and proximity(就近原则)。A) Grammatical concord十五、主谓一致十五、主谓一致(Subject-verb Concord)泅鲜祝雀崭珐疙扛闸障桅鄙抛哎迢骨还辞轧淳樟我恫烫腿恨朋幸衣云白牛十一介词preposition十一介词preposition116nThe principle of grammatical concord refers to the rule that the verb must match its subject in number. If the subject is pl
178、ural, the verb should take the plural form; if, on the other hand, the subject is singular or is a mass noun, the verb should take the singular form, eg:qBoth boys have their own merits.qEvery girl comes on time.qMuch effort is wasted.nDifficulties arise when this principle comes into conflict with
179、the other two principles: principles of notional concord and principle半宣它进在徘佳豪矣换韶移临耪充幻襄哪捐侮忱硒狡嘎匙仆还壳杖莫陵也十一介词preposition十一介词preposition117 of proximity.B) Notional concordnThe principle of notional concord refers to the rule that the verb can sometimes agree with the subject according to the notion of
180、number rather than to the actual presence of the grammatical marker for that notion, eg:nThe government have asked the country to decide by a vote.nFifteen miles seems like a long walk to me. C) Proximity nThe principle of proximity denotes agreement of the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase
181、in急茸最知窝肪养播勘孪额秤将六惯浇弥券陷径人惕波恰就谈悸拔敞贵粒要十一介词preposition十一介词preposition118 preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase that functions as subject, eg:qEither may brothers or my father is coming.qNo one except his own supporters agree with him.qNeither Julia nor I am going. 2) Problems of concor
182、d with nouns ending in snThere are quite a few nouns that end in s but which are not countable. Some of these nouns are treated as singular, some as plural, and some either as singular or as plural. All this can be dealt with under the following headings.肤压减哄蟹鱼纯潞攀畦诈撰骗层牢献秦遣箍颂羹哩戮捐塞烬陋订愉瘫言伎十一介词prepositi
183、on十一介词preposition119A) Disease and game names ending in snNames of disease ending in s are mostly treated as singular, but there are a few such names (as measles麻疹 and rickets佝偻病) which can be used either as singular or as plural.nGame names ending in s are generally used as singular with the except
184、ion of “cards”, which is usually treated as plural.B) Subject names ending in icsnNames of subjects ending in ics are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in 辆匆突钡潍弃肾史谓呈淀聪料灰妊蛇尸莎凤袄窄沽糯笼餐酪麦粉粉掣淄确十一介词preposition十一介词preposition120 other senses than subject names. Co
185、mpare:qAcoustics(声学) is the science of sound.qThe acoustics(音响效果) in the new concert hall are faultless.qEconomics(经济学) is a required course for all the students.qThe economics(经济情况) of the project are still being considered.C) Geographical names ending in snGeographical names such as the name of ar
186、chipelagos(群岛), mountain ranges, straits and falls are generally used as plural, except for a few treated as singular when used as country names, eg:卖灰合兵荤摹情侄步庐传冯闸种烷绞毗愚增讨牢逛颈比黍丰碧得宋歉磐费十一介词preposition十一介词preposition121qThe Himalayas have a magnificent variety of plant and animal life.qThe Straits of Gib
187、raltar have not lost their strategic importance.qIn early January 1976, the Netherlands was hit by its worst storm since 1953. D) Other nouns ending in snNames for things made of two parts such as scissors(剪刀), pincers(钳子), etc are usually used as plural. But when they are preceded by such unit noun
188、s as a pair of and two pairs of, the number form of the following verb is野制柄烙茵梳创罚况恕阶掐怯刚藻惫巾晤融嘿屡蔑出园胖硝诵导赛形婉森十一介词preposition十一介词preposition122generally determined by the number marker of the unit noun.nNouns usually taking plural endings such as archives, arms and clothes are generally used as plural wi
189、th the exception of where-abouts, dramatics(戏剧学), etc. which may be treated either as plural or as singular.nNouns ending in ings such as clippings, diggings, etc are generally used as plural with the exception of tidings which can be used both ways.nThere are also nouns such as barracks and headqua
190、rters whose singular and plural 捆秘蛹籍酋疼椅凌仔泽沁困已质妓冰诲季耸拍匹抄托么差箕凭真扇湍津协十一介词preposition十一介词preposition123 number share the same form. These nouns are treated as plural when used in the plural sense, or vice versa.3) Problems of concord with collective nouns as subjectnCollective nouns are singular in form b
191、ut plural in meaning. The choice between grammatical and notional concord is mostly dictated(支配) by usage.A) Collective nouns usually used as pluralnThese include people, police, cattle, militia, poultry, vermin(害虫,歹徒),folk, youth, clergy,crew, staff, etc:议疆东灿耙加苹剂扮肯筏君兄驶坍扁国狐仿冰捂抓酌睹撑咀每诛懒劫码序十一介词preposit
192、ion十一介词preposition124nThe Chinese people are great people.nDomestic cattle provide us with milk, beef and hides.B)Collective nouns usually used as singularnThese include foliage, machinery, equipment, furniture, merchandise, etc:qAll the merchandise has arrived undamaged. qAll the machinery in the f
193、actory is made in China.C) Collective nouns used either as plural or as singular nThere are collective nouns that can be used either as plural or as singular. The choice of the verb form following such nouns depends on the exact meaning of the noun in a蜜稼傲哆躺褪部着澜房贤铬吧祁笆名袁泼痴界羔谣茄熄诀矾认场狼蓉瘟屎十一介词preposition
194、十一介词preposition125nspecific context. When the noun is used in the sense of a collective as a whole, the verb takes the singular form. If, on the other hand, the noun is used in the sense of the individuals that make the collective, the verb takes the plural form. Compare:qThe anti-crime committee is
195、 to make its report tomorrow.qThe committee are divided in opinion about this problem.qThat group of soldiers is a top-notch(拔尖的) fighting unit.臻镍诬金稚穿券嘉氏漏估救闭锗甄最必错嘴煎锹凡魁亢超蘸艺辟廓映诉哟十一介词preposition十一介词preposition126qThat group of soldiers have the best ratings of individual performance.D)A committee of, e
196、tc + plural nounnWhen a plural noun is preceded by a committee of / a board of / a panel of, the verb usually takes the singular form, eg: qThe board of directors is responsible for the management of the company. qA committee of five men and three women is to consider the matter. 4) Problems of conc
197、ord with a coordinate subject星郊撩篱嫂霹炽舆去绷债骑颂篙详屹温贬栖桶二嘿植个朝意鸦忿研屈堕醉十一介词preposition十一介词preposition127The following rules are to be observed in the case of a coordinate subject.A) Coordination with “and” or “both and”nCoordination by “and” or “both and” is usually treated as plural when it refers to two or
198、more than two persons / things, but it is treated as singular when it refers to only one person or thing. Compare:qBoth Pauline and Bob have gone fishing on Miramar Lake.qRain, hail and wind have caused an estimated $22,000,000 damage to crops and livestock.qThe secretary and treasurer(出纳员) was abse
199、nt from练并毙渺舵聂当宝多穷秀资菩旷汁摈慢童阅缸森喘箔赂诧雹厂垮关掠促绚十一介词preposition十一介词preposition128 the meeting.qHam and eggs is a good breakfast.B) Coordination with “or” / “either or”, “nor”/ “neither nor”, “not only but also”nHere the problem of concord is generally dealt with according to the principle of proximity. But i
200、n informal style, items coordinated by “neither nor” or “not only but also” can sometimes be regarded as plural, eg:qMy sister or my brother is likely to be at home.qEither my father or my brothers are coming.qNeither the players nor the coach was overconfident.俗怜馏店窿粪闰郎碑鞋矗哑恰岳葬拢沪镣探胁朔譬忆的罚命襄锗停粕朱诣十一介词pr
201、eposition十一介词preposition129qNot only the switches but also the old wiring has been changed.5) Problems of concord with expressions of quantity as subjectnQuantitative expression fall into two categories: definite and indefinite.A) Concord with expression of definite quantity as subjectnWhen a defini
202、te quantity is regarded as a single unit, the verb takes the singular from and when used in the sense of the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes the plural form. Compare:虐吭六嚏杰礼络朋佑遏赶褐佃歪团铬快柒阶辗兼僧绩羹冕派牲疲皂肋袱苞十一介词preposition十一介词preposition130qHe thought that 65 dollars was not too much
203、 to ask.qThere were 6 silver dollars in each of the stockings.nIf the subject is “a fraction / percentage + of-phrase”, the form of the verb is determined by the noun in the of-phrase. A plural noun in the of-phrase requires a plural verb; a singular or a mass noun in the of-phrase is to be followed
204、 by a singular verb, eg:qOver 60% of the city was destroyed in the war.qTwo thirds of the swampland has been reclaimed for farming.姥棉凤沤趋翘耀亥棋伐鸯呵挂涎逗焙歪完仍修陡唁开峨颇次邀蹿骇肋雹悼十一介词preposition十一介词preposition131qNearly 50% of the doctors are women.nIf the subject is an expression of “A plus / and B” or “A multipli
205、ed by B”, the verb can either take the singular or the plural form. If, on the other hand, the subject is one of “A minus B” or “A divided by B”, the verb can only be singular, eg:qSeven plus / and five (7 + 5) makes / make twelve.qForty minus fifteen (40 15) leaves twenty-five.qFive times eight (5
206、x 8) is / are forty.qForty divided by eight (40 / 8) is five.nIf the subject is a noun phrase composed of 泳捅客痢杂迂衷爱峻株队灵片囊诞拳囱楔尽括斋平惨射焙讥猜堵寅枪主议十一介词preposition十一介词preposition132“many a + noun” of “more than one + noun”, this kind of noun phrase, though notionally plural, is treated as singular:qMany a man
207、 has done his duty.qMore than one game was lost.nIf the subject is a plural noun preceded by “an average of / a majority of”, the verb form is determined by the notion of the noun phrase: if the noun head is the word “average / majority”, the verb should be singular; if the head is the plural noun,
208、the verb should be plural. Compare: 澡盟贴温求谣汁胎渺抿炎茬教溉蜡础闺考膊转您卤矛挎乖袭痢樟隋垂土丈十一介词preposition十一介词preposition133qAn average of 25 applications a month is not unusual.qAn average of 25 persons apply each month. 6) Other problems of subject-verb concordnThere are other problems of subject-verb concord that are w
209、orth mentioning.A) Problems of concord with a nominal clause as subjectnWhen the subject is a nominal clause introduced by what, who, which, how, why, whether, etc, the verb usually takes the singular form. But when two or more such勿媳稳缀心爵歹憾程否军品窑瓤冲警埃擂即组葡溅丧闺麦坊丢碴徽间羞俯十一介词preposition十一介词preposition134 cl
210、auses are coordinated by and or both and, a plural verb is required, eg:qWhat caused the accident is a complete mystery.qWhat caused the accident and who was responsible for it remain a mystery to us.nIn SVC constructions with a what- clause as subject, the verb usually takes the singular form. But
211、when the subject complement is plural, or when the what-clause is plural in meaning, the verb of the main clause can be plural, eg:qWhat was real to him were the details of his life.俺萤沦泽妹或裳穷许掖浓蚌周捐庸棒环笔董简志详谐佃治轧玄霹伏碉汞侄十一介词preposition十一介词preposition135qWhat are often regarded as poisonous fungi are somet
212、imes safely edible.B) Subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause as subjectnWhen the subject is a non-finite clause, the verb of the main clause usually takes the singular form. But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and, the verb of the main clause takes the singular form when the
213、subject refers to one thing, and the plural form when the subject refers to separate things, eg:酒瞧炉枢谬狗坏磋泌星舰步太共拔伸秸榔孺混逊娘徒牲颐桔局恿胶寺蕴省十一介词preposition十一介词preposition136qTo climb mountains requires courage.qPlaying tennis is a very good exercise.nCompare:qReading Ibsen(易卜生主义) and solving a quadratic equatio
214、n (二次方程)are entirely different assignments.C) Subject-verb concord in relative clausesnIn the construction of “one of + plural noun + relative clause”, the principle of grammatical concord is generally observed. Sometimes, especially in British English, in order to lay emphasis on “one”, the verb ca
215、n also take the singular form. When “one” is preceded 绞凿香电件仟姆破潞架耽麻栓擦冰用葡媒励钒关悸诅雪碳暂丹铱赚变呻棠十一介词preposition十一介词preposition137 by “the” or “the only”, the verb can only be singular. Compare:qJoan is one of those people who go out of their way to be helpful.qJasper White is one of those rare people who beli
216、eves in ancient myths.qKeves is the only one of the players who has learned all the rules.D) Subject-verb concord in cleft-sentencesnIn cleft-sentences, subject-verb concord in that-/ who- clause is generally determined by the number of the focal element functioning 吹泞透仔嘲吭酞萧过设狈赣砂己犹攀峪硅侯酵幻讫删若桨棉儿津剥控斟售十
217、一介词preposition十一介词preposition138 as subject in the clause. There is one point that should be noted: when the focal element is “I”, the verb “to be” in the following who- / that-clause usually agrees with “I” in both person and number; if, on the other hand, the focal element is “me” instead of “I”,
218、the verb “to be” in the following who- / that-clause should take the third person singular number, eg:qIt is I who am to blame.qIt is me that is to blame. E) Subject-verb concord in existential sentences甥赎遥热莎逻硕咏派珍罪葫桥魏羚胖跳距曙笨脓阿绵烽敞毙续社虽诽郝尊十一介词preposition十一介词preposition139nIn existential sentences, subje
219、ct-verb concord is generally determined by the number of the “notional subject”, but in informal style, especially in spoken language, the verb often agrees with the “formal subject” and takes the singular form, even though the notional subject is plural. When the notional subject is a coordinate co
220、nstruction, the verb form goes with the first coordinate element of the notional subject, singular or plural, eg:qThere is a note left on the desk.qThere are three routes you can take.弱甄拥抒口扶夜脉羹仿挞侮毁佐芍膊倡孔蜕芋晾闯五由夯汗钝焚蛋潞广差十一介词preposition十一介词preposition140qTheres more grace and less carelessness.qTheres a
221、long spring board(跳板), and three rafts at varying distances from the shore.Conclusion:So much for subject-verb concord. Guiding principles,Problems of concord with nouns ,with collective nouns as subject, with a coordinate subject, with expressions of quantity as subject,and other problems of subjec
222、t-verb concord has been discussed in this lecture. Now lets do some exercisesExercises:毗谚殷烽唇漳灾闭驮嗣检疤贞琳棕射杭设垣颇诚扼穗讨吊裴扁溺琢些鳞衔十一介词preposition十一介词preposition1411._grazing on the hillside. a. The cattles were b. The cattle was c. A cattle was d. The cattle were(有些名词形式上是单数, 却表示复数概念。）2.The public _required not
223、 to leave litter in these woods. a. are b. is c. was d. were（集合名词在句中强调集体概念时，谓语用单数；强调个体的单独行为时，谓语动词用复数。集合名词有：class, club, committee, company,congress, couple, crowd, family, government, group, majority, minority, organization, population, public, team,etc.)3.Statistics _that the population of this cou
224、ntry will be doubled in ten years time. a. suggests b. suggested国舵蚀楚简氟愈倚航戚园挝放薛辩澳捌劲巴贵豺钧扯熙瑟舔缚乍封萍兢种十一介词preposition十一介词preposition142 c. suggest d. will suggest(statistics 作“统计学”解时, 谓语动词用单数,作“统计数字”解时, 谓语动词用复数。）4.Every means _tried but without much result. a. has been b. have been c. is d. are5.His colou
225、red-spectacles_some special function in his job. a. has b. has been c. have d. have had6.This pair of scissors _dull. a. are b. is c. was d. were7.Man, no less than the lower forms of life,_the product of the evolution. (动物和人一样, 是进化的产物。) a. is b. was c. are d. were翼瘴邱秒册钎享岿腮柳碑垛录芽赠蘑屿郴蓟缄萨弦汪幻稼嗜趣佩史凹鞍蝇十一介
226、词preposition十一介词preposition143( 谓语动词前的介词短语或分词短语不看作主语的组成部分。下列词或词组连接的名词做主语时，动词的数与主语的第一部分保持一致，因为这些词或词组并非并列连词，而是介词或分词等。这类词与有：companied by , along with，apart from, as much as, as well as, aside from, besides, but, combined with, except, in addition to, including, like, no less than , rather than, togethe
227、r with, with,etc.)8.Making beds, together with other light jobs,_ Grandma busy until noon everyday. a. keep b. is keeping c. keeps d. have kept9.No wife, no mother and no child_there to comfort him at that time. a. was b. were c. is d. have been10.My colleague and former college friend_going to Japa
228、n on business.纷洱酞闪奢极杰肿巴凹哗礼好骚海问编疆图蚀拙消躺竣荷涸敦雪芳塘轮迟十一介词preposition十一介词preposition144 a. is b. are c. was d. were11.Not all, but only one, of the tourists_eager to visit the museum. a. are b. have been c. has been d. is(eitheror, neithernor, not onlybut also, or, notbut等并列连词引导的短语做主语时, 谓语动词要遵循毗邻一致的原则。）12.A
229、 large portion of Amilys poems_found and published after her death. a. was b. is c. are d. were13.There _three forms of dictionary in the library. a. is b. was c. are d. have been14.More than one person_the flying saucer. a. is said to have seen b. are said to have seen c. is said to see d. are said
230、 to see域策豁忆须贱际叼鬃巷味凰压质蔷推共仇句吞钦兔霍襄厄掘细肄勤眩讶敌十一介词preposition十一介词preposition145(由one and a half, more than one, not one of 等短语修饰名词时, 谓语动词用单数。）15.The majority of the students _him to be reliable. a. believes b. are believing c. believe d. is believing（由the majority of， a number of，several of 等引起的名词短语做主语时， 谓
231、语动词用复数。）16.The sick _cured and the lost_found. a. have been /has been b. has been / have been c. has been / has been d. have been / have been17.Each student and each teacher_. a. are asked to help b. are asked for helping c. is asked to help d. is asked for helping (用 and 连接的并列成分中有each, every, many a, no 等词修饰时, 谓语动词用单数。）谗态炯煤永撼明幅路讳烛取饺虹逾券炼悸粪抉卡咨总哆留瀑登挪烩嚣卞勘十一介词preposition十一介词preposition146
