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1、七七cultural-difference2cultural-difference2High-Context and Low-Context Culturesn nEdward Hall categorizes cultures as being either Edward Hall categorizes cultures as being either high or low context, depending on the degree to high or low context, depending on the degree to which meaning comes from
2、 the settings or from which meaning comes from the settings or from the words being exchanged. the words being exchanged. n nIn high-context cultures, information is provided In high-context cultures, information is provided through gestures, the use of space, and even through gestures, the use of s
3、pace, and even silence. Meaning is also conveyed through status silence. Meaning is also conveyed through status (age, sex, education, family background, title, and (age, sex, education, family background, title, and affiliations) and through an individuals informal affiliations) and through an indi
4、viduals informal friends and associates.friends and associates.n nIn low-context cultures, the verbal message In low-context cultures, the verbal message contains most of the information and very little is contains most of the information and very little is embedded in the context or the participant
5、s. This embedded in the context or the participants. This characteristic manifests itself in a host of ways.characteristic manifests itself in a host of ways.n nFor example, the Asian mode of communication is often indirect and implicit, whereas Western communication tends to be direct and explicitt
6、hat is, everything needs to be stated. n nWesterners are more prone to making very explicit statements and have little capability with nonverbal forms of expression. n nHigh-context cultures tend to be more aware of their surroundings and their environment and do not rely on verbal communication as
7、their main information channel. n nIn addition to differences in nonverbal In addition to differences in nonverbal communication, there are other manifestations communication, there are other manifestations of high-context and low-context cultures that of high-context and low-context cultures that i
8、nfluence communication. influence communication. n nFor example, members of low-context cultures For example, members of low-context cultures expect messages to be detailed, clear-cut, and expect messages to be detailed, clear-cut, and definite. If there are not enough data, or if the definite. If t
9、here are not enough data, or if the point being made is not apparent, member of point being made is not apparent, member of these cultures will ask very blunt, even curt, these cultures will ask very blunt, even curt, questions. They feel uncomfortable with the questions. They feel uncomfortable wit
10、h the vagueness and ambiguity often associated with vagueness and ambiguity often associated with limited data. limited data. n nOn the other hand, high-context people are apt On the other hand, high-context people are apt to become impatient and irritated when low-to become impatient and irritated
11、when low-context people insist on giving them information context people insist on giving them information they dont need.they dont need.n nAnother problem is that people in high-context Another problem is that people in high-context cultures perceive low-context people, who rely cultures perceive l
12、ow-context people, who rely primarily on verbal messages for information, as primarily on verbal messages for information, as less credible. They believe that silence often sends less credible. They believe that silence often sends a better message than words, and anyone who a better message than wo
13、rds, and anyone who needs words does not have the information.needs words does not have the information.n nUnless people from different cultures are aware of Unless people from different cultures are aware of these subtle differences, communication these subtle differences, communication misundersta
14、ndings between low and high-context misunderstandings between low and high-context communicators can result. communicators can result. n nJapanese communicate by not stating things Japanese communicate by not stating things directly, while Americans usually do the oppositedirectly, while Americans u
15、sually do the opposite“spell it out.” The former is looking for meaning and “spell it out.” The former is looking for meaning and understanding in what is not saidin the nonverbal understanding in what is not saidin the nonverbal communication or body language, in the silences and communication or b
16、ody language, in the silences and pauses, in relationships and empathy. The latter pauses, in relationships and empathy. The latter places emphasis on sending and receiving accurate places emphasis on sending and receiving accurate message directly, usually by being articulate with message directly,
17、 usually by being articulate with words.words.Cultures Arranged along the High-Context and Low-Context DimensionCultures Arranged along the High-Context and Low-Context DimensionHigh-Context CulturesHigh-Context CulturesJapaneseJapaneseChineseChineseKoreanKoreanAfrican AmericanAfrican AmericanNative
18、 AmericanNative AmericanArabArabGreekGreekLatinLatin ItalianItalianEnglishEnglishFrenchFrenchAmericanAmericanScandinavianScandinavianGermanGermanGerman-SwissGerman-SwissLow-Context CulturesLow-Context CulturesDirectness & IndirectnessChinese Proverbn nThink three times before you take action.三思而后行n
19、nA word dropped from the tongue cannot be brought back by four horses.一言既出，驷马难追English Proverbn nHe who hesitates is lost.犹豫者不得志n nThe squeaky wheel gets the grease.会叫的车轮才能得到润滑。Case 1 Dont make noise!Scene 1Scene 1n nJane:Jane: (knocks on her neighbors open window): (knocks on her neighbors open win
20、dow): Excuse me, its 11 ocolck already, and your high-Excuse me, its 11 ocolck already, and your high-pitched opera singing is really disturbing my sleep. pitched opera singing is really disturbing my sleep. Please stop your gargling noises immediately! I Please stop your gargling noises immediately
21、! I have an important job interview tomorrow have an important job interview tomorrow morning, and I want to get a good nights sleep. I morning, and I want to get a good nights sleep. I really need this job to pay my rent!really need this job to pay my rent!n nDiane:Diane: (resentfully) Well, this i
22、s the only time I (resentfully) Well, this is the only time I can rehearse my opera! Ive an important audition can rehearse my opera! Ive an important audition coming up tomorrow. Youre not the only one that coming up tomorrow. Youre not the only one that is starving, you know. I also need to pay my
23、 rent. is starving, you know. I also need to pay my rent. Stop being so self-centered!Stop being so self-centered!n nJane: (frustrated): I really think youre unreasonable. If you dont stop your singing right now Im going to file a complaint with the apartment manager.n nDiane: (sarcastically) Ok. Do
24、 whatever you want. Im going to sing as I please.Scene 2n nMrs. Zhang:Mrs. Zhang: Your daughter has started taking Your daughter has started taking piano lessons, hasnt she? I envy you, because you piano lessons, hasnt she? I envy you, because you can be proud of her talent. You must be looking can
25、be proud of her talent. You must be looking forward to her future as a pianist. I am really forward to her future as a pianist. I am really impressed be her talentevery day, she practices impressed be her talentevery day, she practices so hard, for hours and hours, until late at night.so hard, for h
26、ours and hours, until late at night.n nMrs. Yang:Mrs. Yang: Oh, no, not at all. She is just a beginner. Oh, no, not at all. She is just a beginner. We dont know her future yet. We hadnt realized We dont know her future yet. We hadnt realized that you could hear her playing. I am so sorry you that yo
27、u could hear her playing. I am so sorry you have been disturbed by her noise.have been disturbed by her noise.Case 2When Chinese and Americans communicate there When Chinese and Americans communicate there often are misunderstandings due to their often are misunderstandings due to their differences
28、in style of speech. A conversation differences in style of speech. A conversation between a Chinese husband (following indirect between a Chinese husband (following indirect communicating rules) and an American wife communicating rules) and an American wife (following direct communicating rules) ill
29、ustrates (following direct communicating rules) illustrates these differences:these differences:Wife:Wife: Bobs having a party. Want to go? Bobs having a party. Want to go?Husband:Husband: Ok. Ok.Wife:Wife: (later) Are you sure you want to go? (later) Are you sure you want to go?Husband:Husband: Ok,
30、 lets not go. Im tired anyway. Ok, lets not go. Im tired anyway.n nIn this conversation the husband interpreted the wifes questions as an indirect indication that she did not want to go.n nChinese prefer the indirect way of communication style while Americans prefer the direct way of communicating s
31、tyle.n nIndirect messagesIndirect messages allow you to express your allow you to express your desire without offending or insulting the one desire without offending or insulting the one interacting with you, but often at the sacrifice interacting with you, but often at the sacrifice of your own fee
32、ling. of your own feeling. e.g.e.g. Instead of saying, “I am bored with the Instead of saying, “I am bored with the conversation,” you say, “Its getting late and I conversation,” you say, “Its getting late and I have to get up early tomorrow,” or you look at have to get up early tomorrow,” or you lo
33、ok at your watch and pretend to be surprised by the your watch and pretend to be surprised by the time. time. e.g.e.g. Instead of saying, “This food tastes horrible,” Instead of saying, “This food tastes horrible,” you say, “This food tastes different.” you say, “This food tastes different.” e.g.e.g
34、. Instead of saying, “you look terrible in this Instead of saying, “you look terrible in this dress,” you are likely to say, “I like the dress dress,” you are likely to say, “I like the dress you wore yesterday.”you wore yesterday.”n nIn comparison with indirect messages, direct messages allow you t
35、o express your desire with less consideration about the feeling of the people interacting with you.e.g. Instead of saying “I am so bored; I have nothing to do tonight,” to your boyfriend, you say forthrightly, “Id like to go to the movies. Would you like to come?” e.g. Instead of saying “Do you feel
36、 like hamburgers tonight?” to your husband, you say, “Id like hamburgers tonight. How about you?”Humilityn nChinese ProverbThe more noble, the more humble.越高贵，越应谦逊。Pride goes before destruction.骄者必败。n nAmerican ProverbToo much humility is pride.过分的谦虚就是骄傲。Honesty is the best policy.诚实为上策。Dialogue 1 W
37、ell Donen nBob: You did a fabulous job on the report.n nChang: We did our best. I wish wed had more time.n nBob: For what? It really couldnt have been better.n nChang: I wouldnt like to think so.n nBob: You mean you left something out?n nChang: What do you mean by saying that?Dialogue 2A Chinese car
38、penter who has emigrated to the United A Chinese carpenter who has emigrated to the United States goes to a furniture company looking for a job. He is States goes to a furniture company looking for a job. He is a highly skilled maker of tables with twenty-five years of a highly skilled maker of tabl
39、es with twenty-five years of experience. experience. Employer:Employer: Have you done carpentry work before? Have you done carpentry work before?Carpenter:Carpenter: I dont care say that I have. I have just been in a I dont care say that I have. I have just been in a very modest way involved in the
40、carpenter trade.very modest way involved in the carpenter trade.Employer:Employer: What are you skilled in then? What are you skilled in then?Carpenter:Carpenter: I wont say “skilled”. I have only a little I wont say “skilled”. I have only a little experience in making tables.experience in making ta
41、bles.Employer:Employer: Can you make something now and show us how good Can you make something now and show us how good you are?you are?Carpenter:Carpenter: How dare I be so indiscreet as to demonstrate my How dare I be so indiscreet as to demonstrate my crude skills in front of a master of the trad
42、e like you.crude skills in front of a master of the trade like you.An American employer at this point might very well show the humble Chinese applicant to the door. But, were he to persist in requesting a sample, the Chinese carpenter would finally (and with continuing expressions of humility as he
43、worked) fashion a veritable work of art, which no doubt, he would describe as the work of a beginner even as the employer admired his speed and skill.n nIn comparison with the Americans, the humble In comparison with the Americans, the humble communication style is favorable for the Cmunication styl
44、e is favorable for the Chinese.n nHumility applies not only to conversational Humility applies not only to conversational practices but also to other types of social practices but also to other types of social situations. An amusing example occurs when a situations. An amusing example occurs when a
45、large number of Chinese prepare themselves for a large number of Chinese prepare themselves for a group photograph. All understand that the front group photograph. All understand that the front row, especially the center-front location, is the row, especially the center-front location, is the place
46、of honor and recognize that proper humility place of honor and recognize that proper humility requires that they not willingly place themselves requires that they not willingly place themselves in the front. Even the senior people usually try to in the front. Even the senior people usually try to re
47、main away from the front row, with the result remain away from the front row, with the result that everyone begins to crowd into the back rows. that everyone begins to crowd into the back rows. After some good-natured scuffling and earnest After some good-natured scuffling and earnest appeals from t
48、he junior members and the appeals from the junior members and the photographer to the senior ones, the situation photographer to the senior ones, the situation resolves itself properly.resolves itself properly.Relationshipn nProverbProverbYou honor me a foot, and I will in return honor you You honor
49、 me a foot, and I will in return honor you ten feet.ten feet.你敬我一尺，我敬你一丈。你敬我一尺，我敬你一丈。Live and let live.Live and let live.自己活也让别人活。自己活也让别人活。The American way of business is, “hey, its costing The American way of business is, “hey, its costing us $5,000 to send you on this trip; youd better get us $5,0
50、00 to send you on this trip; youd better get the business.” The Chinese idea is, “We want to the business.” The Chinese idea is, “We want to build a relationship and learn all about you and your build a relationship and learn all about you and your facilities.”facilities.”n nOnes associations with o
51、thers are critical to the Ones associations with others are critical to the Chinese, so key relationship receive intense Chinese, so key relationship receive intense attention and commitment. Due to that, the attention and commitment. Due to that, the difference between relationships with in-group d
52、ifference between relationships with in-group members and merely casual relationships is members and merely casual relationships is magnified. magnified. n nIt may seem to Americans that the Chinese are It may seem to Americans that the Chinese are indifferent to strangers and casual indifferent to
53、strangers and casual acquaintances, ignoring their welfare. But the acquaintances, ignoring their welfare. But the Chinese are simply focusing almost all of their Chinese are simply focusing almost all of their energy on close relatives or intimate friends or energy on close relatives or intimate fr
54、iends or those with whom they have established those with whom they have established relationship in comparison with Americans, who relationship in comparison with Americans, who put at least some effort into treating everyone, put at least some effort into treating everyone, or almost everyone, mor
55、e or less equally. In or almost everyone, more or less equally. In sociological terms, particularism is characteristic sociological terms, particularism is characteristic of the Chinese while universalism is of the Chinese while universalism is characteristic of Americans.characteristic of Americans
56、.n nIn china, once a favor is offered, a repayment In china, once a favor is offered, a repayment should be made in the future time. If the person should be made in the future time. If the person who has accepted the offer did not make the who has accepted the offer did not make the repayment, other
57、s would regard him or her as “a repayment, others would regard him or her as “a person without conscience.” The idea of person without conscience.” The idea of relationship is central to this typical Chinese relationship is central to this typical Chinese behavior with the feeling of reciprocity at
58、the behavior with the feeling of reciprocity at the core of the idea of relationship. core of the idea of relationship. n nThere is much evidence to say that this is selfish There is much evidence to say that this is selfish to some extent. to some extent. n nThe Americans, however, do not expect to
59、 be The Americans, however, do not expect to be repayed after helping others.repayed after helping others.Facen nProverbProverbA person needs face like a tree needs bark.A person needs face like a tree needs bark.人要脸，树要皮。人要脸，树要皮。Everything of the Chinese is disguised under the Everything of the Chin
60、ese is disguised under the mask of face.mask of face.Lao SheLao She中国人的一切都在面子底下藏着呢。中国人的一切都在面子底下藏着呢。老舍老舍For the Chinese negotiator, his face is his future.For the Chinese negotiator, his face is his future.对于中国的谈判人员来说，面子就是他们的未来。对于中国的谈判人员来说，面子就是他们的未来。His face lightens because of the given sunshine.His
61、 face lightens because of the given sunshine.给你点阳关，你就灿烂。给你点阳关，你就灿烂。Story 1An American teacher in China has filled out an An American teacher in China has filled out an official form of some kind and has submitted it to official form of some kind and has submitted it to the authorities at his univers
62、ity. the authorities at his university. A Chinese clerk loses the form. Time goes by. A Chinese clerk loses the form. Time goes by. The American, being efficiency-minded, soon The American, being efficiency-minded, soon becomes impatient. He asks the authorities who are becomes impatient. He asks th
63、e authorities who are dealing with the matter when action will be taken. dealing with the matter when action will be taken. He is told that the matter has been referred to a He is told that the matter has been referred to a higher bureau for a decision, or perhaps that the higher bureau for a decisi
64、on, or perhaps that the matter is under review, or whatever. He is not told matter is under review, or whatever. He is not told that the form has been lost. that the form has been lost. Why?Why?Because losing a form is a type of incompetence, Because losing a form is a type of incompetence, the expo
65、sure of which would cause the authorities the exposure of which would cause the authorities to lose face by contradicting their implicit claim to to lose face by contradicting their implicit claim to be people who can properly handle forms. be people who can properly handle forms. The American event
66、ually suspects that the The American eventually suspects that the explanation being offered is not accurate. If he explanation being offered is not accurate. If he discovers that the form has actually been lost, he discovers that the form has actually been lost, he will feel angry because “After all
67、, if I had only will feel angry because “After all, if I had only been told it was lost, I cold have filled out another been told it was lost, I cold have filled out another form and eliminated this interminable delay.” form and eliminated this interminable delay.” But the authorities were more conc
68、erned about But the authorities were more concerned about preserving face than about the efficient preserving face than about the efficient processing of forms or directness in processing of forms or directness in munications.Story 2n nChinese educational tradition places no value on self-Chinese ed
69、ucational tradition places no value on self-expression by students or trainees, the following more expression by students or trainees, the following more practical reasons are sometimes given by individual practical reasons are sometimes given by individual audience members for their disinclination
70、to speak. audience members for their disinclination to speak. n nPoor learners usually say they are afraid of losing face if Poor learners usually say they are afraid of losing face if they speak, since they might say something stupid. they speak, since they might say something stupid. Outstanding l
71、earners usually say they fear being looked Outstanding learners usually say they fear being looked upon as show-offs by their classmates (also creating loss upon as show-offs by their classmates (also creating loss of face) if they speak too often or say things that are of face) if they speak too of
72、ten or say things that are obviously brilliant. Average learners seem to have the obviously brilliant. Average learners seem to have the least reluctance to speak; they say however, that there least reluctance to speak; they say however, that there is no point in their speaking unless they have some
73、thing is no point in their speaking unless they have something really valuable to contribute. really valuable to contribute. n nFew Chinese share the assumption of most American Few Chinese share the assumption of most American trainers and teachers that audience participation has trainers and teach
74、ers that audience participation has intrinsic value. In the students and trainees view, run-intrinsic value. In the students and trainees view, run-of-the-mill discussions waste precious time that ought to of-the-mill discussions waste precious time that ought to be used by the teacher or trainer to
75、 deliver intellectual be used by the teacher or trainer to deliver intellectual treasures to the audience.treasures to the audience.n nIn comparison with the Americans, Chinese are In comparison with the Americans, Chinese are more sensitive about their face.more sensitive about their face.n nFace i
76、s psychological and not physiological. It is Face is psychological and not physiological. It is not a face that can be washed or shaved, but a not a face that can be washed or shaved, but a face that can be washed or shaved, but a face face that can be washed or shaved, but a face that can be “grant
77、ed” and “lost” and “fought for” that can be “granted” and “lost” and “fought for” and “presented as a gift.”abstract and and “presented as a gift.”abstract and intangible, it is yet the most delicate standard intangible, it is yet the most delicate standard by which Chinese social intercourse is by
78、which Chinese social intercourse is regulatedFace cannot be translated or regulatedFace cannot be translated or defined. defined. n nIt is like honor and is not honor. It cannot be It is like honor and is not honor. It cannot be purchased with money. It is hollow and yet is purchased with money. It
79、is hollow and yet is what men fight for and what many women die what men fight for and what many women die for. It is invisible and yet by definition exists by for. It is invisible and yet by definition exists by being shown to the public. Dispite of all of being shown to the public. Dispite of all
80、of these, certain patterns could be found on the these, certain patterns could be found on the expression of facework in conversation.expression of facework in conversation.n nAmericans tend to assume that everyone else in the world is equally committed to directness in interpersonal communications.
81、 This assumption is erroneous, especially where the Chinese are concerned. The Chinese may very well on occasion be direct but only if no one, including themselves, will lose face.Different ways of thinkingn nChinese culture influences Chinese peoples ways of Chinese culture influences Chinese peopl
82、es ways of thinking. When they think of something, they think in a thinking. When they think of something, they think in a cyclical and synthetic way, which involves trying to grasp cyclical and synthetic way, which involves trying to grasp things in their totality (Hofstede, 1991) (Gudykunst, thing
83、s in their totality (Hofstede, 1991) (Gudykunst, 1998). They think about all sides that might be related, 1998). They think about all sides that might be related, before they decide what to say. This kind of thinking can before they decide what to say. This kind of thinking can be traced in their sc
84、hematic ways of appellation.be traced in their schematic ways of appellation.n nOn the contrary, English people give much consideration On the contrary, English people give much consideration to personal wills, freedom, value and creativeness. The to personal wills, freedom, value and creativeness.
85、The ties among them are loose. Everyone is expected to look ties among them are loose. Everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. Thats why people often say that there are only two Thats why people
86、often say that there are only two pronouns that should be capitalized wherever they pronouns that should be capitalized wherever they appear. One is the word I which indicates individualism. appear. One is the word I which indicates individualism. Another is the word He which represents God. English
87、 Another is the word He which represents God. English people are very conscious of self-dignity and individual people are very conscious of self-dignity and individual freedom. Their behaviors and ways of thinking are more freedom. Their behaviors and ways of thinking are more direct and straightfor
88、ward (Gudykunst, 1998) (Lusting direct and straightforward (Gudykunst, 1998) (Lusting and Loester, 999).and Loester, 999).n nHere are more examples. Cousins in Chinese are Here are more examples. Cousins in Chinese are classified on both fathers and mothers sides. They are classified on both fathers
89、 and mothers sides. They are tangxiong (elder brother cousin), tangdi, tangjie, tangxiong (elder brother cousin), tangdi, tangjie, tangmei ont the fathers side and biaoxiong (elder sister tangmei ont the fathers side and biaoxiong (elder sister cousin), biaomei on the mothers side. These are all cou
90、sin), biaomei on the mothers side. These are all generally called cousins in English (Liu, 1994).generally called cousins in English (Liu, 1994).n nTang and biao in Chinese have different indications. Tang and biao in Chinese have different indications. Tang means “a room in a house”, while biao mea
91、ns Tang means “a room in a house”, while biao means “outside”. It is no wonder that uncles childrens names “outside”. It is no wonder that uncles childrens names are started with tang, because they used to live in the are started with tang, because they used to live in the same house. Once a daughte
92、r got married, she could not same house. Once a daughter got married, she could not stay in her parents house like her brothers. She belongs stay in her parents house like her brothers. She belongs to her husbands house. That is why her children are to her husbands house. That is why her children ar
93、e called biaojie, etc.called biaojie, etc.n nChildren in an English-speaking family will seldom stay in Children in an English-speaking family will seldom stay in their parents house when they grow up. There is no their parents house when they grow up. There is no environment for the use of these ap
94、pellations (Lustig environment for the use of these appellations (Lustig and Koester, 1999).and Koester, 1999).n nThe Chinese cyclical and synthetic ways of The Chinese cyclical and synthetic ways of thinking can also be found in their traditional thinking can also be found in their traditional ways
95、 of understanding human beings and the ways of understanding human beings and the world. The theory of the Five Elements, central world. The theory of the Five Elements, central to Chinese philosophy since Han times (206BC) is to Chinese philosophy since Han times (206BC) is a typical example (jin a
96、nd Cortazzi, 1998). The a typical example (jin and Cortazzi, 1998). The system has been used ever since in many aspects system has been used ever since in many aspects of the cultural systems. These Five Elements of the cultural systems. These Five Elements are Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal and Water. Th
97、eir are Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal and Water. Their essential distinctive feature is that each essential distinctive feature is that each element is connected to each other through element is connected to each other through cyclical sequences. The elements may be cyclical sequences. The elements may b
98、e arranged in a number of sequences, but the two arranged in a number of sequences, but the two actually encountered are either the productive actually encountered are either the productive sequence or the destructive. sequence or the destructive. n nIn the productive sequence, each element In the p
99、roductive sequence, each element generates the next, so that Wood (burns and generates the next, so that Wood (burns and so) produces Fire; Fire (leaves ash behind, and so) produces Fire; Fire (leaves ash behind, and so ) produces Earth; Earth (contains the ore so ) produces Earth; Earth (contains t
100、he ore which) produces Metal; Metal (melts, as ice) which) produces Metal; Metal (melts, as ice) produces Water (liquid), and Water (nourishes produces Water (liquid), and Water (nourishes plant life, and so) produces Wood (Jin and plant life, and so) produces Wood (Jin and Cortazzi, 1998)Cortazzi,
101、1998)n nIn the destructive sequence, each element In the destructive sequence, each element destroys the next-but-one of the productive destroys the next-but-one of the productive sequence. Wood destroys Earth by drawing sequence. Wood destroys Earth by drawing strength from it; Fire melts Metal; Ea
102、rth strength from it; Fire melts Metal; Earth pollutes Water; Metal chop down Wood; and pollutes Water; Metal chop down Wood; and Water puts out Fire (Jin and Cortazzi, 1998) Water puts out Fire (Jin and Cortazzi, 1998) (Wu, 1998).(Wu, 1998).n nThe theory of Five Elements brought together medical Th
103、e theory of Five Elements brought together medical treatment with health and illness, astrology, divination treatment with health and illness, astrology, divination and even musical tonality and composition, until today it and even musical tonality and composition, until today it forms the basis of
104、al diagnosis and treat in Chinese forms the basis of al diagnosis and treat in Chinese medicine. The five organ systems of the body medicine. The five organ systems of the body correspond to the Five Elemetns (Earthspleen, correspond to the Five Elemetns (Earthspleen, Metallung, Woodliver, Fireheart
105、, Water-kidney), Metallung, Woodliver, Fireheart, Water-kidney), and the Chinese pentatonic (five tone) musical scale and the Chinese pentatonic (five tone) musical scale (EarthC, MetalD, WoodE, FireG, Water-A) also (EarthC, MetalD, WoodE, FireG, Water-A) also corresponds to the same Five Elements a
106、nd to the five corresponds to the same Five Elements and to the five organ systems. The existence of the theory shows that organ systems. The existence of the theory shows that Chinese people do not consider things are Chinese people do not consider things are individualistic, they think of them as
107、an integral unit. individualistic, they think of them as an integral unit. They do not think in a one-to-one way but in a cyclical They do not think in a one-to-one way but in a cyclical and synthetic way. When a person has something wrong and synthetic way. When a person has something wrong with hi
108、s/her liver (wood), a Chinese doctor will take with his/her liver (wood), a Chinese doctor will take both kidney (water) and lung (metal) into consideration both kidney (water) and lung (metal) into consideration for the treatment. The organs referred to in Chinese for the treatment. The organs refe
109、rred to in Chinese medicine are not exactly the same as those referred to medicine are not exactly the same as those referred to in the anatomy in Western medicine. They stand for in the anatomy in Western medicine. They stand for “systems.”“systems.”n nIn understanding nature, Chinese people rely o
110、n intuition or thinking through the senses. Their perception is not guarded by reasoning and intelligence. It is the attributes of the objects reflected in their minds through the senses. They consider individual nature and society as unity. Their ways of thinks are cyclical and synthetic (Hofstede,
111、 1991).n nTo see the contrast is the main feature in the To see the contrast is the main feature in the way the English explore nature. Their analytical way the English explore nature. Their analytical ways of reasoning and judging signify linear ways ways of reasoning and judging signify linear way
112、s of thinking (Hofstede, 1991).of thinking (Hofstede, 1991).n nChinese people tend to think from the whole to Chinese people tend to think from the whole to the part, from the large to the small. They start the part, from the large to the small. They start from the general, and then narrow their thi
113、nking from the general, and then narrow their thinking to the concrete. Their ways of thinking appear to the concrete. Their ways of thinking appear cyclical and synthetic (Gudykunst, 1998), cyclical and synthetic (Gudykunst, 1998), characterized with their integrality, imagination characterized wit
114、h their integrality, imagination and their predominance on the intuition.and their predominance on the intuition.n nEnglish people start from the concrete or part English people start from the concrete or part and proceed to whole. This is an analytic way of and proceed to whole. This is an analytic
115、 way of thinking. English people are good at analysis and thinking. English people are good at analysis and logical inference (Gudykunst, 1998) .Their ways logical inference (Gudykunst, 1998) .Their ways of thinking are therefore linear.of thinking are therefore linear.n nEvidence can be found in Ch
116、inese peoples Evidence can be found in Chinese peoples “large-to-small” direction of utterance and in “large-to-small” direction of utterance and in their speech acts of putting general their speech acts of putting general statement before particular comments. With statement before particular commen
117、ts. With dates the year comes first, then month, then dates the year comes first, then month, then day. Similarly in fraction, the larger item day. Similarly in fraction, the larger item precedes the smaller: bai fen zhi yi “hundred-precedes the smaller: bai fen zhi yi “hundred-parts-of-one” or “one
118、 per cent” (Newnham, parts-of-one” or “one per cent” (Newnham, 1971:94). 1971:94). n nEnglish people do it the other way round. For English people do it the other way round. For the same utterance “One of those two men is the same utterance “One of those two men is Chinese; another is Japanese” in E
119、nglish, Chinese; another is Japanese” in English, Chinese people will say “those-two-men, one-Chinese people will say “those-two-men, one-is-Chinese, one-is-Japanese.” They stress the is-Chinese, one-is-Japanese.” They stress the totality before its separation (Newnham, totality before its separatio
120、n (Newnham, 1971:94)1971:94)n n“ “Analytical thinking involves looking at parts, Analytical thinking involves looking at parts, rather than focusing on the whole. Synthetic rather than focusing on the whole. Synthetic thinking, in contrast, involves trying to grasp thinking, in contrast, involves tr
121、ying to grasp things in their totality. Analytic thinking leads things in their totality. Analytic thinking leads to the use of linear logic when talking or writing to the use of linear logic when talking or writing because it is necessary to specify how the because it is necessary to specify how th
122、e parts are related to each other. Synthetic parts are related to each other. Synthetic thinking leads to a more dotlike logic. “The thinking leads to a more dotlike logic. “The speaker organizes his or her ideas in a speaker organizes his or her ideas in a stepping-stone mode: The listener is suppo
123、sed stepping-stone mode: The listener is supposed to supply what is left unsaid”(Okabe, 1983:29) to supply what is left unsaid”(Okabe, 1983:29) (see Gudykunst, 1998:177).(see Gudykunst, 1998:177).n nChinese people tend to resort to concrete and Chinese people tend to resort to concrete and imagery thinking, in contrast, the English imagery thinking, in contrast, the English cultural way of thinking is marked with its cultural way of thinking is marked with its abstractness. abstractness. 结束结束
