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1、chapter1-chapter1-TheFoundationsofChemisTheFoundationsofChemistry(try(基础化学基础化学) )Chapter OutlineMatter and Energy 物質與能量Chemistry A Molecular View of MatterStates of Matter Chemical and Physical Properties 化學與物理性質Chemical and Physical Changes 化學與物理變化Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and ElementsMeasur
2、ements in ChemistryUnits of MeasurementUse of NumbersThe Unit Factor Method (Dimensional Analysis)Percentage 百分比Density and Specific Gravity 密度與比重Heat and TemperatureHeat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat2Chemistry is everywhereTent plasticSteel cooking grate alloy of iron and carbonTrees Photoch
3、emical reaction CO2 + H2O carbohydrateOur bodies inorganic and bioorganic compounds .3Chemistrythe science that describes matterproperties,the changes it undergoes,the energy changes that accompany those processes 研究物質的特性,組成,結構和變化的科學Organic Chemistry 有機化學 Inorganic Chemistry 無機化學 Analytical Chemistr
4、y 分析化學Physical Chemistry 物理化學 Biochemistry 生物化學41-1 Matter and EnergyMatterMassOccupies spaceEnergy: The capacity to do work or transfer heat Kinetic energy & Potential energy 動能 位能 Exothermic & Endothermic 放熱 吸熱 5Fig. 1-1, p. 4The Law of Conservation of Matter物質不滅定律There is no observable change in
5、the quantity of matter during a chemical reaction or during a physical change.無論物質經過任何化學變化或物理變化,其反應物的總質量和產物的總質量相同鎂燃燒生成氧化鎂 6The Law of Conservation of Matter物質不滅定律The law of Conservation of Energy能量不滅定律Energy cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction or in a physical change. It can only b
6、e converted from one form to anotherThe Law of Conservation of Matter and Energy 質能不滅定律The combined amount of matter and energy in the universe is fixedEinsteins RelativityE=mc27Daltons Atomic Theory道耳吞原子學說 (in 1808)Fig1-2 Relative size for atoms of the noble gasesFig. 1-2, p. 61-2 Chemistry A molec
7、ular View of Matter所有的物質都是由極小的微粒所組成, 稱之為原子 (atom)不同元素 (element)的原子不同, 但同一元素所含的原子均相同原子是組成物質的最小粒子,不能再分割化學反應是物質中原子的重新排列或組合不同元素的原子形成化合物 (compound) 時,原子間的比例為一固定的簡單整數比8Table 1-1, p. 6電子質子中子物質的基本粒子The basic building blocks of atoms9p. 7Atomic number 原子序 the number of protons in the nucleusSilver10Fig. 1-3,
8、 p. 7A molecule 分子 is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can have a stable independent existenceFig 1-3 Models of diatomic molecules of some elements, approximately to scale. There are called space-filling models (比例模型) because they show the atoms with their approximate relative si
9、zeOthers: N2, Cl2, Br2, I211Fig. 1-4, p. 7Fig 1-4 (a) A model of the P4 molecule of white phosphorus. (b) A model of the S8 ring found in rhombic sulfur (c) Top view of the S8 ring in rhombic sulfurpolyatomic molecules 12Fig. 1-5, p. 8Fig 1-5 Formulas and ball-and-stick models for molecules of some
10、compounds. Ball-and-stick (球棍模型) models represent the atoms as a smaller spheres than in space-filling models, in order to show the chemical bonds between the atoms as “stick”甲烷乙醇Compound 化合物13Fig. 1-6a, p. 8National Institute of Science and Technology logoCobalt atoms on a copper surfaceUsing the S
11、canning tunneling Microscope34 iron atoms arranged on a copper surface14Atom 原子the smallest particle of an element that maintains its chemical identity through all chemical and physical changeMolecule 分子the smallest particles of an element or compound that can have a stable independent existenceElem
12、ent 元素a substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substance by chemical meansCompound 化合物composed two or more different elements in fixed proportions can be decomposed into their constituent elements15p. 8i. Krypton 氪Example 1-1 Modelsii. ethane 乙烷iii. Nitrogen 氮iv. Aspirin阿斯匹靈v. Sulfur dioxi
13、de 二氧化硫vi. Copper 銅atom moleculeelementcompound161-3 Sates of MatterIodine 碘Bromine 溴Chlorine 氯Fig 1-7 p. 9(s)(l)(g)17p. 9Solid (s)Gas (g)Liquid (l)Example 1-2 Models181-4 Chemical and Physical PropertiesChemical properties Chemical change changes in composition 鎂燃燒生成氧化鎂 Physical propertiesAbsence o
14、f any change of composition color, density, hardness, melting point, boiling point, and electrical and thermal conductivitiesState change (ice-water-steam)Extensive Properties 外延性質Depends on the amount of material in a sample與尺度有關之性質,如重量、體積、熱. .Intensive Properties 內涵性質 Independent of the amount of
15、material in a sample與尺寸無關之性質,如密度、顏色、黏度、壓力、 溫度、濃度 .No two different substances have identical sets of chemical and physical properties19Fig. 1-8, p. 11Endothermic(absorb heat)Exothermic(release heat)蒸發/凝結冷凍/溶化昇華/沉澱Physical Changes Occur among the three states of matter20Fig. 1-9a, p. 12Physical prope
16、rties:(a)melts at 0oC(b)boils at 100oC(c)dissolves a wide range of substancesChemical properties:(d) water reacts violently with sodium to form hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxideWater21Table 1-2, p. 12醋酸苯溴鐵甲烷氧氣氯化鈉22Fig. 1-10, p. 131-5 Chemical and physical changesChemical changeOne or more substances
17、 are used upOne or more new substances are formedEnergy is absorbed or releasedPhysical changeNo change in chemical compositionChange in energy solidliquidliquidgas23p. 131-6 Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and ElementsMixturehave variable compositionMay be separated by physical methodscomponents r
18、etain its propertiesMixture of different components may have widely different propertiesHeterogeneous mixture 非均勻混合物Do not have same composition throughoutComponents are distinguishableSalt and charcoal, foggy air, vegetable soupHomogeneous mixture (solution)Have same composition throughoutComponent
19、s are indistinguishableSalt water, alloys, airGalena(方鉛礦) and quartz (石英)24Fig. 1-11a, p. 15A mixture of iron and sulfur is a heterogeneous mixtureIt ca be separated by physical means, such as removing the iron with magnet25Fig. 1-12, p. 1526Electrolysis apparatus for small-scale chemical decomposit
20、ion of water by electric energy(88.9%)(11.1%)Fig. 1-13, p. 16Chemical decomposition of liquid waterWater as a compound!27Fig. 1-14, p. 17CompoundCompoundCalcium OxideelementsFig 1-14 Diagram of the decomposition of calcium carbonateelementsA compound is a pure substance consisting of two or more dif
21、ferent elements in a fixed ratioLaw of definite Proportions 定比定律 (Law of Constant Composition)HeatCompoundCarbon dioxide28Fig. 1-15, p. 17The physical and chemical properties of a compound are different from the properties of its constituent elements Sodium Chloride (NaCl)White solidThis compound is
22、 formed by the combination of sodium and chlorideSodiumA soft, silvery white metalChlorideA pale green, corrosive, poisonous gasNa + Cl NaClLight and Heat Produce29Table 1-3, p. 18硼鋇鉍溴鎘鈣碳氯鈷鉻銅金鋁銀氦汞碘鉀鎂鋰氪錳氮鈉氖氫鐵氟鉛鉑硫鍗鍶錫矽鈦鈾鎢鋅磷氧鎳30Table 1-4, p. 1810/88 naturally occurring elements make up more than 99% by
23、massLiving matterNo biological role31Table 1-5, p. 191-7 Measurements in Chemistry發光強度電流長度質量燭光絕對溫標莫耳數克分子量時間溫度物質數量The international System of Units (SI) metric system 公制32Table 1-6, p. 19SI: the international system of units331-8 Units of MeasurementMass (質量): doesnt vary as its position changeWeight
24、 (重量): is a measure of the gravitational attraction of the earth for the body, and this varies with distance from the center of the earthTriple-beam balance 0.01g三樑天平Electronic top-load balance 0.001g 電子秤Analytical balance 0.0001g 電子分析天平Fig. 1-16a, p. 2034Fig. 1-17 1-18, p. 21LengthinchcentimeterVol
25、umeBeaker150ml 燒杯buret25ml玻璃量管volumetric flask1000ml 定量瓶Graduated cylinder100ml 量筒volumetric pipet10ml 定量吸管Flask錐形瓶Liters=1000cm3 milliliter=1cm3= 1cc 35Table 1-8, p. 21Appendix C Common Units, Equivalences, and Conversion FactorsPage A-8 to A-10 in textbook36Fig. 1-19, p. 231-9 Use of NumbersScient
26、ific Notation 科學記數法4,300,000=4.3x1060.000348=3.48x10-4Significant Figures 有效位數 are digits believed to be correct by the person who makes a measurement Numbers obtained by countingexact numbers Numbers obtained measurementsare not exact estimate numbers 37The volume is read at the bottom of the liqui
27、d curve (meniscus).Meniscus of the liquid occurs at about 20.15 mL.Certain digits: 20.15Uncertain digit: 20.15Measurement of Volume Using a BuretA digit that must be estimated is called uncertain. A measurement always has some degree of uncertainty.Record the certain digits and the first uncertain d
28、igit (the estimated number).38Fig. 1-20, p. 24Significant Figures 有效位數Precision 精確Degree of agreement among several measurements of the same quantity. Accuracy 準確 Agreement of a particular value with the true value. 39Neither accurate nor precise Precise but not accurate Both precise and accurate Pr
29、ecision and Accuracy4038.57 4 significant figure288g 3 significant figure1. Nonzero digits are always significant .Some simple rules govern the use of significant figures412. Zeros are sometimes significant , and sometimes they are nota. Zeroes at the beginning of a number are never significant b. Z
30、eroes between nonzero digits are always significant c. Zeroes at the end of a number that contains a decimal point are always significant d. Zeroes are at the end of a number that does not contain a decimal point may or may not be significant a.0.052 2 significant figure 5.2x10-2 0.00364 3 significa
31、nt figure3.64x10-3b. 2007 4 significant figure 6.08 3 significant figure c. 38.0 3 significant figure 440.0 4 significant figured. 24,300km 3,4,5 significant figure 2.43x104 2.430x104 2.4300x104423. Exact numbers can be considered as having an unlimited number of significant figures. This applies to
32、 defined quantities.1 yard = 3 feet1,3 are exactDo no apply the rules of significant figures1 inch= 2.54cm43Example Significant FiguresExample Significant FiguresGive the number of significant figures for each of the following results.a. A students extraction procedure on tea yields 0.0105 g of caff
33、eineb. A chemist records a mass of 0.050080 g in an analysisc. In an experiment a span of time is determined to be 8.050x10-3 sec a. 0.0105g 1.05x10-2g 3 significant figures b. 0.050080g 5.0080x10-2 g 5 significant figuresc. 8.050x10-3 sec 4 significant figures444. In addition and subtraction, the l
34、ast digit retained in the sum or difference is determined by the position of the first doubtful digit(a) Add 37.24ml and 10.3ml 37.24ml +10.3 ml 47.54 ml is reported as 47.5ml(b) Subtract 21.2342 from27.81 27.87 g - 21.2342g 6.6358 g is reported as 6.64g 455. In multiplication and division, an answe
35、r contains no more significant figures than the least number of significant figures used in the operation.4.56 x 1.4 = 6.4 two significant figuresWhat is the area of a rectangle 1.23 cm wide and 12.34cm long?A= l x w =(12.34cm) x (1.23cm) =15.2cm2 (calculator result =15.1782)Exercise 3246Example: Si
36、gnificant Figures in Mathematical OperationsExample: Significant Figures in Mathematical OperationsCarry out the following mathematical operations, and give each result with the correct number of significant figures.a. 1.05x10-3 6.135b. 21-13.8c. (2.560)x(8.8) 275.15a. 1.05x10-3 6.135 1.71x10-4 3 si
37、gnificant figures b. 21-13.8 7 The number with the least number decimal places (21) has nonec. (2.560)(8.8) 275.15 0.0835908The least precise measurement has 2 significant figures8.4x10-2 471-10 The Unit Factor Method (Dimensional Analysis 因次分析)Example 1-5 Unit FactorExpress 1.47 mi. in inches.Miles
38、 feet inches 1 mile = 5,280 ft 1 ft = 12 inch Unit Factor: a factor in which the numerator and denominator are expressed in different units but represent the same or equivalent amounts. 1 ft = 12 in 1=12 in/ft 1=1 ft/12inThe reciprocal of any unit factor is also a unit factor?in. =1.47 mi x5280ftmix
39、12in.ft=9.31x104 in.(93139.2)Unit ConversionVolume CalculationMass ConversionVolume ConversionEnergy ConversionEnglish-Metric ConversionFactor-label MethodExercise 36Unit Conversion48Example 1-6 Unit Conversion The ngestrom () is a unit of length 1x10-10m, that provides a convenient scale on which t
40、o express the radii of atoms. Radii of atoms are often expressed in nanometers. The radius of a phosphorus atom is 1.10 (). what is the distance expressed in centimeters and nanometers?Unit Conversionmcmmnm = 1.1 =1.10x10-8cm? cmx1cm1x10-2m1x10-10m1 x = 1.1 =1.10x10-1nm? nmx1nm1x10-9m1x10-10m1 x49Ex
41、ample : Express 9. 32 yards in millimeters.Example : Express 627 milliliters in gallons. = 9.32yd =8.52x103mm? mmx = ? mm9.32 yd3ft1ydx12in1ftx2.54cm1inx10mm1cm =0.166155 gal 0.166 gal? mm = 627ml x = 627 ml? gal1L1000mLx1.06qt1Lx1gal4qt50Example : Express 2.61 x 104 cm2 in ft2. Example : Express 2.
42、61 ft3 in cm3 =28.09380619 ft2 28.1 ft2? ft2 = 2.61x104cm2x1in2.54cmx21ft12in2 =73906.9696 cm3 7.39x104 cm3? cm3 = 2.61 ft3x2.54cm1in3x12in1ft351p. 311-11 Percentage U.S. pennies made since 1982 consist of 97.6% zinc and 2.4% copper. The mass of a particular penny is measures to be 1.494 grams. How
43、many grams of zinc does in this penny contain?1.494g sample x100g sample97.6g zinc=1.46g zincExercise 63, 6452p. 31, Tabl1 1-9, p.321-12 Density and Specific Gravity 密度與比重Density=MassVolumeD =mVg/cm3 or g/ml for solids and liquids,g/L for gases gasolinewatercorkoakmercurybrass53Example 1-13A 47.3-ml
44、 sample of ethyl alcohol has a mass of 37.32g. What is the density?p. 32D =V37.32 g47.3 ml = = 0.789g/mlExercise 40Example 1-14If 116g of ethanol is need for a chemical reaction, what volume of liquid would you use? V =mmD116 g0.789g/ml = = 147mlExercise 42Example 1-15Express the density of mercury
45、in lb/ft3?Mercury density:13.59g/cm3 = 13.59 =848.4lb/ft3lbft3? g cm3x2.54cm1inx12in1ft1lb453.6gx33D =Vmm = D x V V =Dm54p. 33Specific gravity 比重The ratio of its density to the density of water, both at the same temperatureSp. Gr =DsubstanceDwaterDice Dliquid ethanolExample 1-16The density of table
46、salt is 2.16 g/ml at 20oC. What is its specific gravity?Sp. Gr =DsubstanceDwater2.16g/ml1.00g/ml= 2.1655Example 1-17 Specific Gravity, Volume, Percentage by MassBattery acid is 40.0% sulfuric acid, H2SO4, and 60% water by mass. Its specific gravity is 1.31. Calculate the mass of pure H2SO4 in 100ml
47、of battery acid. 40g H2SO4 100g sol = 100.0ml sol =52.4g H2SO4?x40.0g H2SO4100g sol1.31g sol1ml solxH2SO4Exercise 4840% H2SO4 =In this case, the specific gravity equal to the density =1.31g/ml56Fig 1-22, p. 331-13 Heat and TemperatureHeat is a form of energy that always flows spontaneously from a ho
48、tter body to a colder body it never flows the reverse direction. Hotter Body Colder BodyTemperature Measure: Mercury thermometer Centigrade temperature scale 0oC 100oC Fahrenheit temperature scale 32oF 212oF Kelvin (absolute) temperature scale ?K=oC+273.15o or ? oC=K-273.15o Fahrenheit and Centigrad
49、e Relationships ?oF=1.8x?oC+32oF ?oC=1.8oF-3257Example 1-18 Temperature ConversionWhen the temperature reaches “100oF” in the shade”, its hot. What is this temperature on the Celsius scale?oC=1.8oF-321.8100-32= 38oCExample 1-19 Temperature ConversionWhen the absolute temperature is 400K, what is thi
50、s Fahrenheit temperature? oC=K-273.15o =400-273 =127oC ?oF=1.8x?oC+32oF =1.8x127+32oF =261oFExercise 50581-14 Heat Transfer and the Measurement of HeatJoule (J): the SI unit of energy and work job 1 J = 1kg m2/s2Kinetic energy (動能) =1/2 mv2 Calorie: 4.184JSpecific heat (比熱): the amount of heat requi
51、red to raised the temperature of one gram of the substance one degree Celsius with no change in phase A physical property, is different for the solid, liquid and gaseous phase of the substance Appendix E Specific Heat=(amount of heat in J)(mass of substance in g)(temperature change in oC)Unit: J/goC
52、 59Example 1-20 Specific HeatHow much heat s, in joules, is required to raise the temperature of 205g of water from 21.2oC to 91.4oC?amount of heat = (mass)(specific heat)(temperature change) amount of heat = (205g)(4.18J/goC)(91.4oC-21.2oC) = 6.02x104J (60.2kJ)Specific Heat=(amount of heat )(mass)(
53、temperature change )Exercise 58,5960Thermal equilibriumwhen two objects at different temperature are brought into contact, heat flow from the hotter to the colder body Reach to the same temperature endothermic = exothermic 吸熱 =放熱Fig 1-23, p. 3861Example 1-21 Specific HeatA 588-gram chunk of iron is
54、heated to 97.5oC. Then it is immersed in 247grams of water originally at 20.7oC. When thermal equilibrum has been reached, the water and iron are both at 36.2oC. Calculate the specific heat of iron. Temperature change of water = 36.2-20.7 = 15.5oC Temperature change of iron = 97.5-36.2 = 61.3oC Joul
55、es gained by water = Joules lost by iron Let x = specific heat of iron (247g)(4.18 J/goC)(15.5oC)=(588g)(x J/goC)(61.3oC) 16003.13 = 36044.4 x x = 0.444J/goCExercise 6262Example 1-22 Comparing Specific HeatsWe add the same amount of heat to 10.0grams of each of the following substances staring at 20
56、oC: H2O(l); Hg(l); liquid Benzene,C6H6(l); and solid aluminum, Al(s). Rank the samples from lowest to highest final temperature. Refer to Appendix E fro required data. Substance specific heat H2O(l) 4.18 Hg(l) 0.138 C6H6(l) 1.74 Al(s) 0.90amount of heat = (mass)(specific heat)(temperature change) sp
57、ecific heat : H2O(l) C6H6(l) Al(s) Hg(l)The ranking from the lowest to highest final temperature is H2O(l) C6H6(l) Al(s) Hg(l)Exercise 7163进入夏天，少不了一个热字当头，电扇空调陆续登场，每逢此时，总会想起进入夏天，少不了一个热字当头，电扇空调陆续登场，每逢此时，总会想起那一把蒲扇。蒲扇，是记忆中的农村，夏季经常用的一件物品。记忆中的故那一把蒲扇。蒲扇，是记忆中的农村，夏季经常用的一件物品。记忆中的故乡，每逢进入夏天，集市上最常见的便是蒲扇、凉席，不论男女老
58、少，个个手持乡，每逢进入夏天，集市上最常见的便是蒲扇、凉席，不论男女老少，个个手持一把，忽闪忽闪个不停，嘴里叨叨着一把，忽闪忽闪个不停，嘴里叨叨着“怎么这么热怎么这么热”，于是三五成群，聚在大树，于是三五成群，聚在大树下，或站着，或随即坐在石头上，手持那把扇子，边唠嗑边乘凉。孩子们却在周下，或站着，或随即坐在石头上，手持那把扇子，边唠嗑边乘凉。孩子们却在周围跑跑跳跳，热得满头大汗，不时听到围跑跑跳跳，热得满头大汗，不时听到“强子，别跑了，快来我给你扇扇强子，别跑了，快来我给你扇扇”。孩。孩子们才不听这一套，跑个没完，直到累气喘吁吁，这才一跑一踮地围过了，这时子们才不听这一套，跑个没完，直到累气
59、喘吁吁，这才一跑一踮地围过了，这时母亲总是，好似生气的样子，边扇边训，母亲总是，好似生气的样子，边扇边训，“你看热的，跑什么？你看热的，跑什么？”此时这把蒲扇，此时这把蒲扇，是那么凉快，那么的温馨幸福，有母亲的味道！蒲扇是中国传统工艺品，在是那么凉快，那么的温馨幸福，有母亲的味道！蒲扇是中国传统工艺品，在我国已有三千年多年的历史。取材于棕榈树，制作简单，方便携带，且蒲扇的表我国已有三千年多年的历史。取材于棕榈树，制作简单，方便携带，且蒲扇的表面光滑，因而，古人常会在上面作画。古有棕扇、葵扇、蒲扇、蕉扇诸名，实即面光滑，因而，古人常会在上面作画。古有棕扇、葵扇、蒲扇、蕉扇诸名，实即今日的蒲扇，江浙称之为芭蕉扇。六七十年代，人们最常用的就是这种，似圆非今日的蒲扇，江浙称之为芭蕉扇。六七十年代，人们最常用的就是这种，似圆非圆，轻巧又便宜的蒲扇。蒲扇流传至今，我的记忆中，它跨越了半个世纪，圆，轻巧又便宜的蒲扇。蒲扇流传至今，我的记忆中，它跨越了半个世纪，也走过了我们的半个人生的轨迹，携带着特有的念想，一年年，一天天，流向长也走过了我们的半个人生的轨迹，携带着特有的念想，一年年，一天天，流向长长的时间隧道，袅长的时间隧道，袅结束
