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1、学习必备欢迎下载Josy lee 教材课程应用语言学复习知识点总结Chapter 4 first language acquisition Differences between Saussure and Chomsky Saussure s objectiveis to describe the language system(langue),but parole is an individual act. Saussure is more concerned with its sociological aspect . Chomsky s objective is to character
2、ize the native speakers knowledge of the system of his language (competence). Chomsky is more concerned with its psychological aspect . How is the first language acquired? Traditional assumption: imitation and practice Chomskys creative hypothesis-testin g-language acquisition is based on the child
3、s discovery of a deep and abstract theory-a generative grammar of his language (child hear all kinds of utterance, but he choose only what fits his needs. His own utterances (performance)are original and novel.) The deepest structure of all language may be the same-Universal Grammar(UG) in Chomskys
4、theory. Major L1 acquisition theories-the process of L1 acquisition 1,Behaviorist theories : These theories follow the empiricist approach, emphasizing that the only way of knowing anything is by experiencing it physically. Basic tenet 原则: since one cannot observe his internal states, which is regar
5、ded as a “ black box ” , hence one can not know anything about them, any statements about the internal states or process are meaningless. The only meaningful statements about the organism concern what goes into it(stimulus)and what comes out of it(response). Objective :is to discover and create pred
6、ictable relationship/association between stimulus and response. 1)imitation-reinforcement theories - skinner Basic idea: verbal behavior, like other human behaviors, is controlled by its consequences. In the process of first language acquisition, if a certain correct response is repeatedly reinforce
7、d, it is conditioned and becomes a habit, then finally the child acquires his native language. 2)mediation theories-to fill the “ black box”Basic ideal : two thing connecting with a third thing tend to be in associating with each other. One the association is established, an internal link is built u
8、p even when the third thing is not present. Mowrer s theory: a word is a conditioned stimulus while the thing to which the word refers is the unconditioned stimulus. Osgood s theory :three-stage meditational model: sensory, representational and integrational. 2. Cognitive theories These theories fol
9、low the rationalist approach, being more concern with the actual linguistic-processing abilities of the individual. Objective: to the discovery of new kinds of mental events. 1)Nativist theories( the innateness hypothesis) This is lied by Chomsky. Basic idea : the child is born with the biological b
10、asic for the acquisition of language, which enables them to develop a grammar that will incorporate all thecommon feature of human language. Chomsky call this as Universal Grammar(UG) and claim the existence of “black English”which he calls as Language Acquisition Device(LAD). McNeil constructed the
11、 hypothetical grammar of child language(pivot grammer). This theory account for aspects of meaning, the abstractness of language, and the creativity of child language. 2)Cognitive theories 认知学派Chapter 5 second language learning The nature of second language learning 1)Native-like proficiencythe goal
12、 of second language learning Three components of L2 proficiency : 1) Grammatical competence: (i.e linguistic competence )vocabulary, pronunciation, grammatical structure and word form. 2) Sociolinguistic competence: (i.e communicative competence )- sociocultural rules for using language appropriatel
13、y, discourse rules for thinking parts of a language text coherently and cohesively. 3) Strategic competence: (i.e L2 leaner s ability to compensate for problem in communication)verbal and non-verbal communication strategies. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 1 页，共 8 页学习必备欢迎下载Major2 lear
14、ning theories-the nature and process of L2 learning 1. The interlanguage theory Definition: (Ronald Carte)is a transitional stage in learning a second or foreign language. language system bordering on the first language and the target language. Larry Selinker first used this term to refer to “ the a
15、ttempted meaningful performance”Corder explained: “ is the collective name of second language learnersversions of target languages and call it transitional competence. Premises: 1) the learner constructs a grammar, a system of abstract linguistic rules which underlies comprehension and production. 2
16、the learner s grammar is permeable. 3)The leaners competence is transitional. 4)The learner s performance is variable. 5)Interlanguage development reflects cognitive learning strategies and communication strategies. 6)The interlanguage system may fossilize. The principle characteristics: 1) Interlan
17、guage system is “ reduced”or “ simplified” system and have “ restricted functions” . 2) Interlanguage system is dynamic. 2. Monitor theory -the laws governing L2acquisition Developed by S. Krashen and contain five hypothesis 1)The acquisition learning hypothesis (the most fundamental of all the five
18、 ) Basic idea: adult have two independent ways of developing competence in a second language-language acquisition and language learning. The former is subconscious process and latter is conscious process. 2)The monitor hypothesis Basic idea: acquisition and learning are used in very specific ways. N
19、ormally, acquisition “ initiates”our utterances and be responsible for our fluency. Learning act as a Monitor and Editor in L2 language learning. Three conditions for monitoring: Thus, conscious learning play a limited role in L2 performance and only three conditions are met may be it used.- 1)havin
20、g time 2)Focusing on form 3)Knowing the rule 3)The natural order hypothesis Basic idea : there is a predictable, natural order for the acquisition of grammatical structures in a second language. Average order(English as a second language) ：ING(progressive)/PLURAL/COPULA(“ to be” )- AULILIARY(progres
21、sive, as in “ he is going” )/ARTICLE(a,the)- Irregular past-regular past/iii singular/possessive Three requirement for presenting rules: Learnable/portable/not yet acquired 4)The input hypothesis-how we acquire language Basic idea : learners acquire language as sa result of comprehending input addre
22、ssed to them. we acquire L2 by understanding language that contain structure a bit beyond our current level of competence. (i+1) Once our communication is successful and the input is understood, the production emerges. 分类： premodified input: is material that is finely tuned in advance to the learner
23、s current level. Interactively modified input: is material (usually spoken discourse)that is modified when the teacher and the learner interact. -结论：课堂有其重要性， 因为能大量提供INPIT 5)The affective filter hypothesis-the relationship between affective filter and thesecond language acquisition Basic idea : L2 ac
24、quirers vary with respect to the strength or level of their affective filters. While he claims that the input plays the primary role in L2 acquisition and the filter affective variables act to impede or facilitate the delivery of input to the language acquisition device. Summary of Monitor Theories-
25、 1)Acquisition is more important that learning 2)two conditions to acquire a second language Comprehensible input(a bit beyond the) A low or weak affective filter 5)The creative construction model Developed by M. Burt and H. Dulay and based on Chomskys linguistic theory of “ creative aspect of langu
26、age use ”Basic idea : refers to a process in which the learners gradually reconstruct rules for speech they 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 2 页，共 8 页学习必备欢迎下载hear, guided by their innate mechanisms which cause them to formulate certain types of hypothesis about the language system bein
27、g acquired, utile the mismatch between what they are exposed to and what they produced is resolved. It propose the internal creativity mechanism 图：the language environment provides the input for mental processing and the leaner s verbal performance is the output. Three processing mechanism is involv
28、ed. Affective filter Language learners do not take in everything they hear. The affective filters, like motivation, self-confidence and anxiety, controls the entry of input. Cognitive organizer It responsible for the leaners gradual organization of the new language system. Linguistic monitor It resp
29、onsible for a kind of self-editing process by which learners are concerned about linguistic forms, using conscious rules to produce sentences. Chapter 9 Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis Contrastive Analysis Basic idea: by the comparison and contrast of two or more language to determine the di
30、fferences and similarities of two language, and the ultimate goal is to identify the difficulties of L2learning. (or to predicate what area will be easy and what will be difficult.) Theoretical bases -behaviorism and structuralism Basic assumption : 1)L2 learning involves overcoming difficulties in
31、the linguistic systems of the target language.(Grass and Selinker) 2)the main difficulties in L2 learning are caused by interference from the L1. 3)CA can predict or account for difficulties in L2 learning. 4)CA can reduce the difficulties and facilitate L2 learning. Major object : providing insight
32、 into similarities and difficulties. Predicating problems in L2 learning. Developing course materials for language taching. Error Analysis Basic idea: Corder claimed EA is a type of bilingual comparison, a comparison between learner s interlanguage and the target language system. It is a methodology
33、 of describing L2 learner s language system. Two justification: to understanding the nature of errors and to eradicate them. / is necessary to an understanding of the process of second language acquisition. 对比： CA aimed to predicate errors resulting from L1, which failed to account for other types o
34、f errors. While EA compare the learner s interlanguage and the target language. Tow Source of errors: Interlingual errors(transfer errors): it occurs when learner misuse an item because it shares some features with an item in the native language. Intralingual errors(developmental errors): errors wit
35、hin the target language itself. OVERGENERALIZATION Types of errors :Process of EA: 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 3 页，共 8 页学习必备欢迎下载Recognition-Description-Explanation Explanation: the source of errors: interlingual transfer(the interference of the first language) / Intralingual trans
36、fer(overgeneration of the rules of the target languge) Two issues: Fossilization : the relatively permanent incorporation of incorrect linguistic forms into a person s second language competence. Pidginization : refers to the process by which a pidgin develops. The learner instinctively attempts to
37、bring two languages together, which results in aspects of both. Chapter 11 Language Testing Test E. Ingran“ a test is a measuring device which we use when we want to compare an individuals who belong to the same group”Brown - “a test is a method of measuring a person s ability or knowledge in a give
38、n area. ”Requirements for a good testvalidity, reliability, discrimination and practicality. 1 , Validity : the most important requirement. It refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is meant to measure, or can be used successfully for the purposes for which it is intended. Face validi
39、ty, content validity, construct validity, empirical vality. Face validity : 外行人 it refers to the degree to which a test appears to measure the abilities or knowledge it claims to measure, based on the subjective judgment. Its superficial. Content validity :内行人it refers to the degree to which a test
40、adequately and sufficiently measures the particular skills or behavior it sets out to measure. Construct validity : 能力的测试It assumes the existence of certain learning theories or constructs which underlie the acquisition of abilities and skills. Thus it refers to the degree to which the items in a te
41、st reflect the essential aspects of the theory( the construct) on which the test is based. Eg: 英语语言能力的测试（听说读写译）Bachman : it is concerned with the extent to which performance on tests is consistent with prediction that we make on the basis of a theory of abilities or constructs. Empirical Validity Ba
42、sic idea : measure the validity of a test by comparing the test with one or more criterion measures. It contains two ways: concurrent validity(comparing the test with other valid tests at the same time) and predictive validity(comparing the test with other valid tests or other performance criteria o
43、btained at a later time). The only difference is time. 2 , Reliability - stability and consistency of test scores Validity ensures the meaningfulness of a test, reliability ensures its consistency. It is a measure of the degree to which a test gives consistent results. A test is reliable, if it meet
44、s the above four conditions : 1)a test is given to a group of students on different occasions 2)two parallel forms of the test are given tom the same group on different occasions 3)the test is scored by the same scorer on different occasions 4)the test is scored by two or more competent scorers. Fou
45、r factors affect the reliability: 1) the extent of the sample material selected for testing-the bigger, the more reliable 2) the administration of the test: 同一考试在不同的时间，不同对象下结果相同。3) scoring the test 4) test instructions:考试相关要求5) personal factor three ways to measure reliability: 1)test-retest reliabi
46、lity相同的考试在不同时间考2)parallel reliability- 几个 parallel tests给同一对象3)split-half reliability- 一场考试分为两半执行Types of language test 1 , Tests distinguished by useAchievement tests, or attainment tests结业考试(特别是 课程考试 ) Aims to measure how much of a language the learner has learned with reference to a particular co
47、urse of study or program of instruction. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 4 页，共 8 页学习必备欢迎下载Proficiency tests 能力考试过级考试“四六级”没有教科书的，Aims to measure how much of a language the learner knows with reference to a particular task which he will be required to perform. 区别： The A test looks back
48、on what should have been learned from a particular course or syllabus. While the P test looks forward, measuring the leaners general level of language mastery. The difference lies in the way they are prepared and interpreted. Aptitude tests 学能考试（还没学过的语言）It is designed to measure the leaner s probabl
49、e performance in a second language which he has not started to learn, assessing his aptitude for learning a language and predicting his probable strengths and weakness in learning a second language. 区别： the P test is took place at some point after learning has started and relating the leaners lingui
50、stic knowledge to future non-linguistic performance. The Ap test is took place before learning aL2 and aims to predict the learner s inherent aptitude for language learning. Diagnostic tests It is designed to show what skills or knowledge learners do not know and to diagnose their areas of difficult
51、ies, to enable teacher to identify areas of problem so as to plan the most appropriate remedial program.Placement tests 分班考试It is designed to place learners at an appropriate level in a program or course or to sort new students into approximately teaching groups so that they can start a course or a
52、program at proximately the same level. 2, distinguished by standard for measuring Criterion-reference tests 标准参照 (有及格线的 ) It measure a students performance according to a particular external criterion which has been agreed upon. He must reach this level of performance in order to be admitted. Norm-
53、reference tests 常模参照 (以考试的人群为依据 , 有录取比例 ) It measures the performance of a student or a group of students comparing with the performance of other students whose scores are used as a norm. 区别： the major difference between these two types of T is the standard used. The scores in the former test in int
54、erpreted with reference to the criterion that is generally agreed, while the score in the latter test is interpreted in the reference to the behavior of other students, which is set up as a norm. Interpreting test result Measure of central tendency-median中位数 , arithmetic mean平均数 , mode 众数， range范围，s
55、tandard deviation （SD ）标准差 ,variance 方差，percentile ranks(or scales)百分位排位SD-whether the distribution of a score is normal. SD= 1/N * (xi-x平)2 PR-it indicates the position of a given score in a distribution divide into 100 ranks. The higher the PR is, the better one is in the test. Chapter 11 linguist
56、ics and syllabus design A clarification of Term: syllabus and curriculum 区：in some sense, syllabus is part of a curriculumSyllabus : is specification of what takes place in the classroom, which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology Curri
57、culum : provides 1)general statement about the rationale of language, language learning and language teaching. 2)Detailed specification of aims, objectives and targets learning purpose 3)Implementation of a program Other difference: Syllabus used to refer something similar to a language teaching app
58、roach- more pedagogicalCurriculum refers to a specific document of a language program developed for a particular country or region.-educational planning issue. Theoretical Views behind syllabus Design Types of syllabus 1) structural syllabus is a grammar oriented syllabus based on a selection of lan
59、guage items and structures. The vocabulary and grammatical rules included in the teaching materials are carefully ordered. Shortcomings: 1 concentrated only on the grammatical forms and the meaning of individual words. 2 communicative incompetence, not taught 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - -
60、- - -第 5 页，共 8 页学习必备欢迎下载how to use these sentence in real situation. 2) The situational syllabus Hold the idea that language is used for communication, the aim of the SS is specifying the situations in which the target language is used. Shortcoming: 1 the situation described in the text cannot be tr
61、uly ” authentic” . 2 the arrangement of the situations is not systematic. 3) The communicative syllabus It aims at the learners communicative competence and emphasize the process of communication. Based on a notional-functional syllabus, it teaches the language needed to express and understand diffe
62、rent kinds of functions. 4) The task-based syllabus The syllabus consist of a list of specification of the task and activities that the learners will engaged in class in the target language. TB syllabus are more concerned with the classroom process which stimulate learning than with the language kno
63、wledge or skills that students are supposed to master The definition of Task: many linguists have once defined this term, take all these definitions into consideration, the essence of which is that a task is an activity in which students use the target language to do something, usually with a non-li
64、nguistic purpose. Six principles or guidelines for designing tasks : 1) A task should have a clear purpose When we design a task, we must make it very clear to the students what is the purpose of doing the task. The purpose is not pure pedagogical purpose, but have more communicative purpose. 2)A ta
65、sk should have some degree of resemblanceto real-world events. Tasks that are more motivating. 3)A task should involve information seeking, processing and conveying. 4)A task should involve the students in some modes of doing something. Some traditional tasks actually didn t make Ss do things. 5)A t
66、ask should involve the meaning-focused use of language The Ss focus on understanding meaning, convey meaning rather than manipulating the structure. 6)A task should end with a tangible product Components of syllabus Current trends in syllabus Design 教学大纲设计1) The co-existence of the old and the new 2
67、) The emphasis on the learning process 3) The inclusion of non-linguistic objectives in syllabus. Now, as a school subject, language education should not merely aim at helping Ss to mater language knowledge and skills, Rather, it has responsibility in fostering Ss whole person development , not only
68、 intellectual development but also affect, cultural understanding and learning strategies.4) The emergence of the multi-syllabus Chapter one what is Applied Linguistics A brief history Outline: *1871 firstly introduced by Polish Linguist J. Baudouin de Courtenay-draw attention for the distinction be
69、tween pure linguistics and applied linguistics. *1946 independent discipline at University of Michigan in US. *1960s began to develop vigorously1950s along with revolution by Chomsky, it shook off the fatters of structuralism and paved the way for the development of the hybrid disciplines. 1964 the
70、first World Congress of Applied Linguistics(every 3 years) was held in Nancy, France. The Association International de Linguistique Appliquee, which marked the recognition of the status of applied linguistics as an independent discipline . The 12thWorld congress of Applied Linguistics held in Tokyo
71、in August 1999. Topics: 1)foreign language teaching 2) Education technology 3) Contrastive linguistics and error analysis 4) First language learning and teaching 5) Artificial intelligence 6) Bilingualism and multilingualism 7) Interpreting and translating 8) International language Definition and sc
72、ope Reasons : the need of practice(after ww2) The development of linguistics itself The maturity of Applied Linguistics 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 6 页，共 8 页学习必备欢迎下载The developing of education要求以学生为中心Definition and scope Definition: ( from Ronald Carter1993:3 ): Applied linguistic
73、s is the application of linguistics theories, descriptions and methods to the solution of language problems which have arisen in a range of human, cultural and social contexts. One of the main contexts for its application is the exploration of problems in language learning and teaching and, for many
74、, the term is used with almost exclusive reference to this field. However, the term applied linguistics is used in relation to other fields, such as literary studies ( stylistics); translation studies, lexicography, language planning; as well as specific branches of linguistics such as clinical ling
75、uistics and critical linguistics. Ideally, applied linguist should work alongside other professionals in the exploration of language problems or difficulties so that the application of linguistics becomes the result of a genuine synthesis rather than one in which answers are found only according to
76、an agenda provided by the linguist. Clinical linguistics is a branch of applied linguistics in which methods and theories of language handicaps such as spoken and written disorders or to an understanding of sign languages for the deaf. Critical linguisticsis a relatively new field. It starts from th
77、e premise that systems and uses of language are not neutral. The emphasis is on using linguistic analysis to expose the ideologies which inform all spoken and written texts. There is a particular emphasis on the unmasking of ideologies in public and media discourse Eg: IBM closes factory. Workers pr
78、otest. Workers attack closure of factory. Chapter 11.6 Corpus Linguistics and Language Teaching Corpus is a collection of texts input into a computer. Language corpora make it possible for materials developers to select authentic, natural and typical language.(size and types are the two most importa
79、nt factors) Four types of corpora: General corpora: it is a collection of material which is broadly homogeneous, but which is gathered from a variety of sources so that the individuality of a source is obscured, unless the researcher isolates a particular text. Useful for language researcher as a wh
80、ole. Specialized corpora: useful for language for specific purposes. If we need to find out what language is used in a certain profession, then we select texts from that prefession. Sample corpora: this is a kind of genre-based corpus. It is a large number of short extracts randomly selected from al
81、l kinds of generes. Monitor corpora:this kind of corpora is gigantic, ever moving store of text. It has the capacity to hold a state of the language for research purpose. Chapter 5 Meaning 1, G. Leech s 7 types of meaning 1Conceptual meaning 概念意义Logical, cognitive, or denotative content Associative
82、meaning 联想意义2,connotative meaning 内涵意义What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to. 3,social meaning社会意义What is communicate of the social circumstances of language use. 4,Affective meaning 情感意义What is communicated of the feeling and attitudes of the speaker. 5,reflected meaning 反射意义What
83、 is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression 6,Collecative meaning 搭配意义What is communicated through associated with another sense of the same expression. 7,Thematic meaning 主位意义What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and e
84、mphasis. 2, The referential Theory Semantic Triangle: 语 意 三 角 ： the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct. It is mediated by concept. (The concept refers to the abstract notion behind a concrete thing. That has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our
85、 mind.) Concept Word thing 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 7 页，共 8 页学习必备欢迎下载The concept contains two thing- sense and reference.Sense is the abstract properties of an entity, while reference is the concrete things words refer to. But not every word has reference, like if and but. Eg:
86、the word desk can be explained as ” a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes ” . Actually it is the sense of the word”desk” . When we refer to a concrete “ desk”to explain it, we use the reference. So, a word and thing has no direct relation, it is by its con
87、cept that we explain and understand a word. 3, Sense Relations Three kinds of sense relations: sameness relation; oppositeness relation; inclusive relation. 1)synonym: pairs of words of these two sources which mean the same: buy / purchase; world / universe；brotherly / fraternal. But total synonym i
88、s rare. 2)Antonymy: 2.1 Gradable antonymy: good / bad; long / short; big / small. Features: gradable -the denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. -they can be modified by “ very”- have comparative and superlative degree. No absolute criterion : The term of higher degree serves a
89、s the cover term. 2.2complementary antonymy: alive / dead; present /absent; innocent / guilty; male / female; odd / event; pass / fail; hit / miss( a target); boy / girl. Features: the denial of one also means the assertion of the other Cannot be modified by “ very” .The norm in this type is absolut
90、e.There is no cover term for the two members of a pair. 误区：“ true and false ” , because there is cover term “ how true is the story ” , can be modified by “ very” and have comparative and superlative degree “ truer and truest” . 2.3Converse antonymy: buy / sell; lend / borrow; give / receive; parent
91、 / child; husband / wife; host / guest; employer / employee; teacher / students; above / below; before / before Features ：-The member of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entites.- there are always two sides- the comparative
92、 degrees like smaller / longer; better / worse; older / younger are also belong to it. Because it involves a relation between two entities. 3)Hyponymy Super ordinate(上意词 ) and hyponyms(下意词 ) eg: flower-Features: - a superordinate may be a superordinate to itself Eg: animal living(plant and animal(bird, fish, insect, animal(human, animal(tiger, lion, elephant) - A superordiante may be missing sometimes. Eg: color is a noun, red, black, are adjective. -Hyponyms may also be missing. Eg: 在英语中，伯伯，叔叔，舅舅，姑父等都是uncle / 在英语中，稻，谷，米，饭等都是rice. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 8 页，共 8 页
