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1、TPO 19 Conversation 1 Listen to a conversation between a student and the professor. Student Hi, professor Handerson. That was a really interesting lecture in class today. Professor Thanks, Tom. Yeah, animals use of deception, ways they play tricks on other animals, thats a fascinating area. One we a
2、re really just starting to understand. Student Yeah, you know, selective adaptations over time are one thing. Oh, like, non-poisonous butterflies, that have come to look like poisonous ones. But the idea that animals of the same species intentionally deceive each other, I have never heard that befor
3、e. Professor Right, like, there are male frogs who lower their voices and end up sounding bigger than they really are. Student So they do that to keep other frogs from invading their territory ? Professor Right, bigger frogs have deeper voices, so if a smaller frog can imitate that deep voice. Well
4、. Student Yeah, I can see how that might do the trick. But, anyway, what I wanted to ask was, when you started talking about game theory. Well, I know a little bit about it, but I am not clear about its use in biology. Professor3 Yeah, it is fairly new to biology. Basically, it uses math to predict
5、what an individual would do under certain circumstances. But for example, a buisness sells, oh computer, say, and they want to sell their computers to a big university. But there is another company bidding too. So, what should they do? Student Well, try to offer the lowest price so they can compete,
6、 but still make money. Professor Right, they are competing, like a game, like the frogs. There are risks with pricing too high, the other company might get the sale, there is also the number and types of computers to consider. Each company has to find a balance between the cost and benefits. Well, g
7、ame theory creates mathematical models that analyze different conditions like this to predict outcomes. Student Ok, I get that. But how does it apply to animals ? Professor Well, you know, if you are interested in this topic, it would be perfect for your term paper. Student The literature review ? P
8、rofessor Yeah, find three journal articles about this or another topic that interests you and discuss them. If there is a confict in the conclusions or something, that would be important to discuss. Student Well, from what I have looked at dealing with game theory, I cant say I understand much of th
9、e statistics end. Professor Well, I can point you to some that presents fairly basic studies, that dont assume much background knowledge. Youll just need to answer a few specific questions: What was the researchers hypothesis? What did they want to find out? And how did they conduct their research?
10、An then the conclusions they came to. Learning to interpret these statistics will come later. Lecture 1-Linguistics(Proto-Indo-European) Narrator Listen to part of a lecture in a linguistics class. Professor All right, so far we have been looking at some of the core areas of linguistics, like syntax
11、, phonology, semantics, and these are things that we can study by looking at one language at a time, how sounds, and words, and sentences work in a given language. But the branch of historical linguistics, involves the comparison of several different languages, or the comparison of different stages
12、of a single language. Now, if you are comparing different languages, and you notice that they have a lot in common. Maybe they have similar sounds and words that correspond to one another that have the same meaning and that sound similar. Lets use a real-world example. In the 18th century, scholars
13、who have studied the ancient languages, Sanskrit, Latin and Greek, noticed that these three languages had many similarities. And there might be several reasons why languages such as these had so much in common. Maybe it happened by chance, maybe one language was heavily influenced by borrowed words
14、from the other. Or maybe, maybe the languages developed from the same source language long ago, that is, maybe they are genetically related, that was what happened with Sanskrit, Latin and Greek. These languages had so many similarities that it was concluded that they must have all come from the sam
15、e source. And talk about important discoveries in linguistics, this was certainly one of them. The scholars referred to that source language as Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Indo-European is a reconstructed language. Meaning, it is what linguists concluded a parent language of Sanskrit, Latin and Greek would have to be like. And Proto-Indo-European branched out into other languages, which evolved into others, so in the end, many languages spoken all over the world today can trace their ancestry back to one language, Proto-Indo-Europea
