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1、types of sentence are used, what is their function? Sentence complexity: Do sentences on whole have a simple or a complex structure? What is the average sentence length? Does complexity vary strikingly from one sentence to another? Is complexity mainly due to (i) coordination, (ii) subordination, (i
2、ii) juxtaposition of clauses or of other equivalent structures? In what parts of the text does complexity tend to occur? clause types: What types of clauses are favoredrelative clauses, adverbial clauses, or different types of nominal clauses? Are non-finite forms commonly used, and if so, of what t
3、ypes are they (infinitive, -ing form, -ed form, verbless structure)? What is their function? Clause structure: Is there anything significant about clause elements (eg frequency of objects, adverbials, complements; of transitive or intransitive verb constructions)? Are there any unusual orderings (in
4、itial adverbials, fronting of object or complement, etc)? Do special kinds of clause construction occur (such as those with preparatory it or there)? Noun phrases: Are they relatively simple or complex? Where does the complexity lie (in premodification by adjectives, nouns, etc, or in postmodificati
5、on by preposition by prepositional phrases, relative clauses, etc)? Verb phrases: Are there any significant departures from the use of the simple past tense? For example, notice occurrences and functions of the present tense, of the progressive aspect, of the perfect aspect, of modal auxiliaries. ot
6、her phrase types: Is there anything to be said about other phrases types, such as prepositional phrases, adverb phrases, adjective phrases? Word classes: Having already considered major word classes, we may consider minor word classes (eg functional words), such as prepositions, conjunctions, pronou
7、ns, determiners, auxiliaries, interjections. Are particular words of these types used for particular effect (eg demonstratives such as this and that, negatives such as not, nothing)? General: Note whether any general types of grammatical construction are used to special effect (eg comparative or sup
8、erlative constructions, coordinative or listing constructions, parenthetical constructions, interjections and afterthoughts as occur in causal speech). And see to the number of lists and coordinations. Figures of Speech Here we consider the features which are foregrounded by virtue of departing in s
9、ome way from general norms of communication by means of the language code, for example, exploitation of deviations from the linguistic code. Grammatical and lexical schemes (foregrounded repetitions of expression): Are there any cases of formal and structural repetition (anaphora, parallelism, etc)
10、or of mirror-image patterns (chiasmus)? Is the rhetorical effect of these one of antithesis, reinforcement, climax, anticlimax, etc? Phonological schemes: Are there any phonological patterns of rhyme, alliteration, assonance, etc? Are there any salient rhythmical patterns? Do vowels and consonant so
11、unds pattern or cluster in particular ways? How do these phonological features interact with meaning? Tropes (foregrounded irregularities of content): Are there any obvious violations of or neologisms from the linguistic code? For example, are there any neologisms (such as “portentous infants”)? Are
12、 there any semantic, syntactic, phonological, or graphological deviations? Such deviations are often the clue to special interpretations associated with traditional figures of speech such as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, paradox, and irony. If such tropes occur, what kind of special interpretation
13、 is involved (for example, metaphor can be classified as personifying, animalizing, concretizing, synaesthetic, etc)? Context and cohesion Here we take a look at features which are generally fully dealt with in discourse analysis. Under cohesion ways in which one part of a text is linked to another
14、are considered; for instance, the ways sentences are connected. This is the internal organization of a text. Under context, roughly the material, mental, personal, interactional, social, institutional, cultural, and historical situation in which the discourse is made, we consider the external relati
15、ons of the literary text or a part of the text, seeing it as a discourse presupposing a social relation between its participants (author and reader, character and character, character and reader, etc.), and a sharing of knowledge and assumptions by participants. Cohesion: Does the text contain logic
16、al or other links between sentences (eg coordinating conjunctions, linking adverbials), or does it tend to reply on implicit connections of meaning? What sort of use is made of cross-reference by pronouns (she, it, they, etc), by substitute forms (do, so, etc), or ellipsis? Is there any use made of elegant variationthe avoidance of repetition by substitution of a descriptive phrase (as “the old lawyer” substitutes for the repetition of an earlier “Mr Jones”)? Are meaning connect
