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1、 Chapter 3 Lexicon 3.1 What is word? 3.1.1 Three senses of “Word” 3.1.2 Identification of Words 3.1.3 Classification of Words 3.2 The Formation of Word 3.2.1 Morpheme and morphology 3.2.2 Types of Morphemes 3.2.3 Inflection and Word Formation 3.3 Lexical Change 3.3.1 Lexical Change Proper 3.3.2 Morp
2、ho-syntactical Change 3.3.3 Semantic Change 3.3.4 Phonological Change 3.3.5 Orthographic change 3.1 What is word? Traditionally the smallest of the units that make up a sentence, and marked as such in writing. In practice, words are established by various criteria. First, They are generally the smal
3、lest units that can form an utterance on their own. In Bloomfields terminology , they are minimal free forms. Second, There are often restrictions on their phonetic make-up: e.g. English words cannot begin with or . Third, the position of a stress or other accent is often fixed. It is determined by
4、the boundaries of words or their syllable structure. Forth, elements within words show greater cohesion than larger units: thus stems and affixes cannot be separated except by other affixes. Nor does the order of their elements tend to vary. 3.1.1 Three senses of “Word”First, A physically definable
5、unitWord may be seen as a set of sound segments or writing letters between two pauses or blanks.Phonological: Orthographic: It is wonderful.Grammatical: it (pronoun), is (linking), wonderful (adjective) Three words are recognized.We can identify a word from the view point of phonology and by grammat
6、ical criteria. Second, Word both as general term and as a specific term. Third, a grammatical unit, Discourse clause phrase word morphemeAccording to Halliday, it means “successively larger grammatical units.” For example, in My brother came on Saturday. The successive words are units of one rank; t
7、he successive phrases (my brother, came, on Saturday) are units of the higher rank, the clause as a whole is the highest rank.Lexeme (词位) means a word considered as a lexical unit, in abstraction from the specific forms it takes in specific constructions. E.g. to sing sing, sings, sang, sung, singin
8、g.Lexicon (词库) means an elaborate network of entries related by lexical rules and features shared at various levels. Rank (级): According to Jesperson, it means “successive levels of subordination or dependency.” For example, in junction very cold water, water as the highest level, primary, cold the
9、secondary, very the lowest, tertiary. Rank shifting (级移) means the process by which a unit may form part of a larger unit either of its own or of a lower rank. The book I bought is gone.3.1.2 Identification of words Stability: Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their in
10、ternal structure. chairman, but not *manchairRelative uninterruptibility: It means that new elements should not be inserted into a word, even there are several parts in it. For example, disappointment, not *disinterestappointment.A minimum free form: According to Leonard Bloomfield, sentence should
11、be treated as “the maximum free form” while word “the minimum free form”. Word is the smallest unit that can be used by itself, as a complete utterance. 3.1.3 Classification of words Variable vs. Invariable WordsWords can be classified into variable words and invariable words. For variable words, th
12、ey may have inflective changes: the same lexical word may have different grammatical forms while invariable words do not have inflective changes. Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.(2) Grammatical vs. Lexical Words Grammati
13、cal/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns. Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs(3) Closed-class vs. Open-class Words Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added. E.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries. Open-class wor
14、ds: New members can be added. E.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.Word class: Any class of word established by similarities in syntax or in grammar generally, known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar.The classification first was based on classical Latin and Greek analysis, but only two
15、 classes: something like todays subject and predicate.Later, nine word classes were established: Noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article.Today, a few more word classes have been introduced into grammar. i. Particle (小品词) Used by C.F. Hockett in the 195
16、0s of all forms that do not take inflection. Also by Jespersen of all the elements, e.g. in English, traditionally called adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. For example, infinitive to, negative not, subordinate units in phrasal verbs “get by”, “look back”, etc.ii. Auxiliary (助动词) A verb belonging to a small c
