1第一章Pagan writing represents the poetry which the Anglo-Saxons probably brought with them in the form of oral sagas — the crude material out of which literature was slowly developed on the English soil.a Theme: the Anglo-Saxon sense of the harshness of circumstance and the sadness of human lot.b The national epic poem : BeowulfChristian writing: represents the writings developed under the teaching of the monksa. Theme: on biblical themes or on saints’ livesb. Functions of art: not simply to release men’s feelings but also to teach them and to enhance their devotion. c. Representative worksCaedmon: the father of English Song, Genesis A and Genesis B The song of BeowulfThemes: the transience and the potentiality--or inevitability--of sudden attack, sudden change, swift eath is omnipresent in Beowulf. There is little hope to escape--the strong sense of doom.• The hero, Beowulf, is a seemingly invincible person with all the extraordinary traits required of a hero. He is able to use his super-human physical strength and courage to put his people before himself. • He encounters hideous monsters and the most ferocious of beasts but he never fears the threat of death. His leadership skills are superb and he is even able to boast about all his achievements.4. the Germanic heroic codeStrength：It’s essential to a hero to fight with the enemies. (He met a man whose hands were harder.) Courage：facing the Monster Grendel and Fire-Breathing Dragon.Loyalty in Warriors(Responsibility):He chose to fight with dragon even when he was a very old king, at the same time,a warrior.Good Reputation: Beowulf, enriched with honors and princely gifts, returned home -- the Geatland, after he had killed monster Grendel.Political skills: He ruled Geats for more than 50 years.No threat,no terror.Hostility: He killed Gendel’s mother who was bent on vengeance. Generosity: He shared the booty with his men.Importance of heroic code valuesThis code is vital to warrior societies as a means of understanding their relationships to the world and the menaces lurking beyond their boundaries.All of the characters’ moral judgments stem from the code’s mandates. Thus individual actions can be seen only as either conforming to or violating the code.第二章 Sir Gawain and the Green KnightMain Characters• Arthur: King of Camelot• Sir Gawain: Representative, not elect• Green Knight: Ambiguous natureGreen body-supernaturalGreen and gold equipment-courtly youthHolly bob-life and peaceAxe-war1). Green knighta. personifies the renewable, indestructible forces of natureb. a mixture of the familiar (the civil) and the foreign (the raw). 2c. the recurring color of green and gold in the description of the Green Knight第三章 The Canterbury Tales: Snapshot of an Age• It frames a story of characters on a religious pilgrimage to Canterbury.• The characters are a concise portrait of an entire nation.• The pilgrimage is a quest narrative that moves from images of spring and awakening to penance (忏悔 ), death, and eternal life.• The characters tell stories that reflect “everyman” in the universal pilgrimage of life. 4. Language: Middle English5. Narrator: The primary narrator is an anonymous, naive member of the pilgrimage, who is not described. The other pilgrims narrate most of the tales. 6. point of view: In the General Prologue, the narrator speaks in the first person, describing each of the pilgrims as they appeared to him. Though narrated by different pilgrims, each of the tales is told from an omniscient third-person point of view, providing the reader with the thoughts as well as actions of the characters.7. setting (time): The late fourteenth century, after 13818. setting (place): The Tabard Inn; the road to Canterbury9. Protagonists: Each individual tale has protagonists, but Chaucer’s plan is to make none of his storytellers superior to others; it is an equal company. 10. major conflict: The struggles between characters, manifested in the links between tales, mostly involve clashes between social classes, differing tastes, and competing professions. There are also clashes between the sexes, and there is resistance to the Host’s somewhat tyrannical leadership.11. rising action: As he sets off on a pilgrimage to Canterbury, the narrator encounters a group of other pilgrims and joins them. That night, the Host of the tavern where the pilgrims are staying presents them with a storytelling challenge and appoints himself judge of the competition and leader of the company.12. Climax: Not applicable (collection of tales)13. falling action:After twenty-three tales have been told, the Parson delivers a long sermon. Chaucer then makes a retraction, asking to be forgiven for his sins, including having written The Canterbury Tales.14. Themes:1).The Pervasiveness of Courtly Love2). The Importance of CompanyThe pilgrims come from different parts of society—the court, the Church, villages, the feudal manor system. To prevent discord, the pilgrims create an informal c。