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1、Chapter 10,Cognitive Linguistics,Contents,10.1 Introduction 10.2 Categorization and Categories 10.2.1 The classical theory 10.2.2 Prototype theory 10.2.3 Levels of categorization 10.3 Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy 10.3.1 Conceptual metaphor 10.3.2 Conceptual metonymy 10.4 Iconicity 10.4.1 Iconici
2、ty of order 10.4.2 Iconicity of distance 10.4.3 Iconicity of complexity 10.5 Grammaticalization,10.1 Introduction,Describe a car box-like shape, wheels, doors, windows, engine, brakes, seat comfortable, fast, social status personal affairs connected with cars, e.g. car accident,What does this exampl
3、e tell us?,This example tells us that the description of a car goes beyond the objective description, but provides a richer, more natural view of its meaning, and includes the use of metaphor. This approach to language is closely related to human experience of the world and the way to perceive the w
4、orld. This new approach to language is called cognitive linguistics.,cognitive linguistics Cognitive Linguistics is the study of language based on human bodily experience of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world. 认知语言学是基于人类对世界的经验以及他们感知和概念化世界的方式。,Background: Cognitive lingui
5、stics is a newly established approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970s as a reaction against the dominant generative paradigm which pursues an autonomous view of language and has been increasingly active since 1980s.,three major hypotheses of cognitive linguistics: 1) Language is n
6、ot an autonomous; 2) Grammar is conceptualization; 3) Knowledge of language emerges from language use.,10.2 Categorization and Categories,Categorization: Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences. 范畴化是基于人类经验的异同将我们的经验
7、划分成不同的类型。 Categorization is our ability to identify entities as members of groups.,10.2.1 The classical theory,The classical theory of categorization can be traced back to Aristotle, and it is carried forward by structuralist and transformationalist linguists.,10.2.1 The classical theory,The classic
8、al theorythe view that categories are defined by a limited set of necessary and sufficient conditions. It was the prevalent model since the time of Aristotle. These conditions are called necessary and sufficient because they are individually necessary but only collectively sufficient to define a cat
9、egory.,Traditionally, the conditions were thought to be sensory or perceptual in nature. The “conditions” in the definition are also called features. The features are necessary in that no entity that does not possess the full set is a member of the category, and they are sufficient in that possessio
10、n of all the features guarantees membership. In short, category membership is an all-or-nothing affair.,Four assumptions of the classical theory,1. A thing cannot both belong to a category and not belong to it. 2. Features are binary. 3. Categories have clear boundaries. 4. All members of a category
11、 have equal status.,Criticisms of the classical theory,Certain things do not fall into clear categories. For instance, do ostriches and penguins belong to the BIRD theory? Even if they do, arent they less of birds than robins are? Then what about ducks and peacocks? Are they more of birds than pengu
12、ins?,10.2.2 The prototype theory,The prototype theory started in the mid-1970s with E.Roschs psychological research into the internal structure of categories. The prototype theory has had a steadily growing success in linguistics since the early 1980s. It is for this linguistic tradition of prototyp
13、e-theoretical research that the prototype theory has a very important status in cognitive linguistics.,Prototype the best example of a category The usefulness of the prototype theory It is useful for explaining how people deal with atypical examples of a category. It can explain how people deal with
14、 damaged examples. It can work for actions as well as objects.,In the BIRD category, there are many members, such as ostrich, sparrow, penguin, goose, duck, dove, robin, owl, peacock, parrot, etc. But they differ in prototypicality.,Good examples are prototypes or prototypical members, and bad examp
15、les are nonprototypes or nonprototypical members. Robin and sparrow are good examples, and ostrich and penguin are bad examples, and others are neither good nor bad examples (goose, duck, dove, owl, peacock, parrot).,In the FURNITURE category, Prototypical members (good examples): chair, sofa, couch
16、, table Nonprototypical members (bad examples): ashtray, vase, telephone,10.2.3 Levels of categorization,Categories arrange from level to level.There are three levels in categories: superordinate level: higher level or more general level, e.g. furniture, animal basic level: more specific but not too specific, e.g. chair subordinate level: lower level or more specific, e.g. desk chair,Basic level 基本层次范畴 The categories at the basic level are those that are most cultural
