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1、Determining Optimal Level of Determining Optimal Level of Product AvailabilityProduct AvailabilityOptimalOptimal Matching of Supply and Matching of Supply and Demand (III)Demand (III)【本本著著作作除除另另有有註註明明外外，採採取取創創用用CC姓姓名名標標示示非非商商業業性性相相同同方方式式分分享享台台灣灣3.0版版授授權權釋釋出出】第八單元(2) ：Determining Optimal Level of Pro
2、duct Availability1蔣明晃教授Supply Chain Decision-Making FrameworkInventoryTransportationFacilitiesInformationSupply chain structureSupply chain structureDriversDriversSupply chain strategyCompetitive strategyEfficiencyResponsiveness2Levers for Increasing Supply Chain ProfitabilityDecreasing the costs of
3、 overstocking and understockingReducing the demand uncertainty Improved forecasting to lower uncertaintyQuick response: reduce lead time to increase number of orders per seasonPostponement of product differentiationTailored sourcingMicrosoft。3BENETTONBenettonBenetton4BENETTONBenetton將毛衣的製造程序重新設計，將原本
4、先染色再編織的程序，改成先將毛線編織成毛衣，等透過市場調查掌握市場流行顏色後，才開始進行染色程序。如此，Benetton公司可以避免大量顏色落伍的存貨，每年因而節省數百萬美元的成本。 BenettonBenettonMicrosoft。5BENETTON72hr72hr12day12dayMicrosoft。6ZARAZARAMicrosoft。Microsoft。7Whats Quick Response?Whats Quick Response?A widely used strategyA widely used strategyBy general merchandise, soft-
5、lines retailers and By general merchandise, soft-lines retailers and manufacturersmanufacturersTo reduce retail out-of-stocks, forced markdown, To reduce retail out-of-stocks, forced markdown, merchandising system and operating costsmerchandising system and operating costsSuppliers and retailers wor
6、k together to respond more Suppliers and retailers work together to respond more rapidly to consumer needsrapidly to consumer needsBy sharing POS information to jointly forecast future By sharing POS information to jointly forecast future demand for replenishable items, and to continuously demand fo
7、r replenishable items, and to continuously monitor trends to detect opportunities for new itemsmonitor trends to detect opportunities for new itemsSpread through the supply chain and seamlessly Spread through the supply chain and seamlessly linked at each stage by electronic data interchangelinked a
8、t each stage by electronic data interchangeA partnership strategyA partnership strategyA JIT strategyA JIT strategy8Basic Elements of QRBasic Elements of QRTime horizonsInformationSupplier/ManufacturerrelationshipsPhilosophical/Cultural changeLogisticsManufacturingOperations9Example: US Textile and
9、Example: US Textile and Apparel Industry in 1986Apparel Industry in 1986FiberFabricApparelConsumerRetailSynthetics (75%) highly concentratedSynthetics (75%) highly concentratedTen firms provide more than 90% of marketTen firms provide more than 90% of marketMore fragmentedMore fragmented6,000 firms6
10、,000 firms12 firms provide 1/4 of market12 firms provide 1/4 of marketExtremely fragmentedExtremely fragmented15,000 firms (70% employ fewer than 50 people)15,000 firms (70% employ fewer than 50 people)Increasing concentrationIncreasing concentrationMajor categories:Major categories:Department store
11、sDepartment storesMass merchandisersMass merchandisersMail orderMail orderChainsChainsSpecialty storesSpecialty storesIncreasing sophisticationIncreasing sophisticationExpectation of variety/changeExpectation of variety/changeWide choice of retail outletsWide choice of retail outlets10The Inefficien
12、ciesThe InefficienciesLong supply chainLong supply chainFrom raw material to consumer purchase was 66 weeksFrom raw material to consumer purchase was 66 weeks11weeks in-plant time11weeks in-plant time40 weeks in warehouse or transit40 weeks in warehouse or transit15 weeks in store15 weeks in storePr
13、oblems of long supply chainProblems of long supply chainExpensive to financeExpensive to financeToo much or too little product was produced and distributedToo much or too little product was produced and distributed1985-1986 overall loss - $25 billion1985-1986 overall loss - $25 billion11The Response
14、The ResponseAwaken the industryAwaken the industryFocus on the entire supply chain rather than separate Focus on the entire supply chain rather than separate functions within itfunctions within itTargeting the common goalsTargeting the common goalsServe the consumer with the right products at the ri
15、ght time, Serve the consumer with the right products at the right time, and the right priceand the right priceThe total supply chain would achieve major gains in both The total supply chain would achieve major gains in both efficiency and effectivenessefficiency and effectiveness12Expected Results t
16、hrough QRExpected Results through QRFig. 6-15QR systemQR systemWeeksFiber, Fabric, Apparel, and Retail Inventories (Working Fiber, Fabric, Apparel, and Retail Inventories (Working Weeks)Weeks)Average Cost per UnitAverage Cost per Unit66462113Example: BenettonExample: BenettonBenetton deliver knitted
17、 goods in the hottest new colors seemingly Benetton deliver knitted goods in the hottest new colors seemingly overnight.overnight.It knitted the sweaters in neutral yarn and then dyed them to It knitted the sweaters in neutral yarn and then dyed them to meet market demand.meet market demand.Putting
18、in place fast and sophisticated retailer reporting Putting in place fast and sophisticated retailer reporting systems.systems.Key technologiesKey technologiesBar code systemsBar code systemsComputer networksComputer networksAutomated distribution centerAutomated distribution centerEDI or Internet-ba
19、sed ECEDI or Internet-based ECCIMCIM14ECR is a Global Industry Strategy in which Retailers ECR is a Global Industry Strategy in which Retailers and Suppliers Work Together to Deliver Better and Suppliers Work Together to Deliver Better Consumer Satisfaction and Value.Consumer Satisfaction and Value.
20、ECR(Efficient Consumer Response)ECR(Efficient Consumer Response)15A strategy in which distributors and suppliers are working closely A strategy in which distributors and suppliers are working closely together totogether to maximize grocery consumer satisfaction and minimize cost.maximize grocery con
21、sumer satisfaction and minimize cost.Timely, accurate, paperless information flowSmooth, continual product flow matched to consumptionSupplierDistributorRetail storeConsumerhouseholdWhat is Efficient Consumer Response?What is Efficient Consumer Response?16Anatomy of Efficient Consumer ResponseAnatom
22、y of Efficient Consumer ResponseA consumer A consumer purchases purchases “Product A” “Product A” from a from a supermarket. supermarket. The transaction The transaction is recorded by is recorded by the stores the stores scanner.scanner.The scanner The scanner forwards the forwards the transaction
23、record transaction record to an in-store to an in-store computer. The computer. The Product A Product A manufacturer, manufacturer, whose computers whose computers interface with the interface with the retailers, notes retailers, notes the transaction the transaction and automatically and automatica
24、lly reorders a reorders a replacement unit replacement unit on a just-in-time on a just-in-time basis.basis.An automatic An automatic ordering ordering system allows system allows the product A the product A supplier to supplier to match match production to production to demand using demand using pr
25、oduct product movement movement information and information and forecasting.forecasting.Because Because production is tied production is tied directly into directly into demand, retailers demand, retailers become become increasingly freed increasingly freed from the need for from the need for excess
26、 inventory excess inventory and warehousing and warehousing of excess of excess inventory, thus inventory, thus opening the door opening the door for increased for increased cross-docking and cross-docking and direct store direct store delivery shipments.delivery shipments.The retailers in-The retai
27、lers in-store computer store computer acknowledges acknowledges receipt of the receipt of the shipment and shipment and automatically automatically issues a computer-issues a computer-generated payment generated payment or electronic fund or electronic fund transfer payment, transfer payment, elimin
28、ating the eliminating the need for paper need for paper invoices and invoices and streamlining the streamlining the accounting process.accounting process.Microsoft。C網站Microsoft。Microsoft。Microsoft。17Efficient Consumer Response ProcessEfficient Consumer Response ProcessManufacturingbusinessstrategyRe
29、plenishmentPromotionProduct introductionsStore assortmentsRetailbusinessstrategyReplenishmentPromotionProduct introductionsStore assortmentsOpen communicationChange managementIntegrated EDIContinuous replenishmentComputer-assisted orderingFlow-through distributionActivity-based costingCategory manag
30、ementFlexible manufacturing18ECR Strategies & ObjectivesECR Strategies & ObjectivesStrategiesStrategiesObjectivesObjectivesEfficient Store AssortmentOptimize the productivity of inventories and store space at the consumer interfaceEfficient ReplenishmentOptimize time and cost in the replenishment sy
31、stemEfficient Promotion/PricingMaximize the total system efficiency of trade and consumer promotion & pricingEfficient Product IntroductionsMaximize the effectiveness of new product development and introduction activities19ECR ComponentsECR ComponentsLogistics (Supply Side)Logistics (Supply Side)Con
32、tinuous ReplenishmentContinuous ReplenishmentCross DockingCross DockingCategory Management (Demand Side)Category Management (Demand Side)Understanding Consumer NeedsUnderstanding Consumer NeedsDecisions Made with DataDecisions Made with DataCategory vs. Brand FocusedCategory vs. Brand FocusedTotal S
33、ystems ApproachTotal Systems ApproachEnabling Technologies (Tools)Enabling Technologies (Tools)Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT)Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT)Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)Activity Based Costing (ABC)Activity Based Costing (ABC)Item Coding & Database
34、MaintenanceItem Coding & Database Maintenance20Supplier warehouse38 daysDistribution warehouse(Forward buy 9 days,turn inventory 31 days)40 daysRetail store26 daysSupplier warehouse27 daysDistributorwarehouse12 daysRetail store22 days104 daysECR DRY GROCERY CHAINECR DRY GROCERY CHAINCURRENT DRY GROC
35、ERY CURRENT DRY GROCERY CHAINCHAIN61 daysPacking Packing linelineConsumerConsumerPurchasePurchasePacking Packing linelineConsumerConsumerPurchasePurchaseExample: Throughput Time Improvement Example: Throughput Time Improvement of Dry Groceryof Dry Grocery21ECR RequirementsECR RequirementsThink Total
36、 Supply ChainThink Total Supply ChainMulti-Function, Multi-Echelon CooperationMulti-Function, Multi-Echelon CooperationConvert Efficiencies to Customer ValueConvert Efficiencies to Customer ValueDrive True Efficiency and Recognize InefficiencyDrive True Efficiency and Recognize InefficiencyEmphasize
37、 on ConsumerEmphasize on ConsumerWork Together to Create DemandWork Together to Create DemandChange Business ProcessesChange Business ProcessesIdentify Whats Wrong TodayIdentify Whats Wrong TodayTrustTrustTo be PartnersTo be PartnersShare DataShare Data22StoresP & GPlantP & GHeadquartersCustomerHead
38、quartersCustomerDistributionCentersStoreStoreDeliveryDeliveryOrdersOrdersDirect store level shipmentDirect store level shipmentDemand and Demand and InventoryInventoryOrdering infoOrdersOrdersExample: P&Gs CRP ProcessDedicated Carriers andDedicated Carriers andPrescheduledPrescheduledAppointmentsApp
39、ointmentsDemand andDemand andInventoryInventoryShipping info.Shipping info.Ordering infoOrdering infoC網站C網站C網站C網站臺灣大學 郭瑞祥老師23BarriersBarriersLack of TrustLack of Fairness - Open TradingNo Information SharingLack of Resource CommitmentLack of Industry StandardsCulture (Negotiation Environment)Measure
40、ment/Rewards24Quick Response: Multiple Orders Quick Response: Multiple Orders per Seasonper SeasonOrdering shawls at a department storeOrdering shawls at a department storeSelling season = 14 weeksSelling season = 14 weeksOriginal replenishment lead time = 15 weeksOriginal replenishment lead time =
41、15 weeksReduced replenishment lead time = 6 weeksReduced replenishment lead time = 6 weeksCost per handbag = $40Cost per handbag = $40Sale price = $150Sale price = $150Disposal price = $30Disposal price = $30Holding cost = $2 per weekHolding cost = $2 per weekExpected weekly demand = 20Expected week
42、ly demand = 20SD of weekly demand = 15SD of weekly demand = 1525Quick Response: Multiple Orders Quick Response: Multiple Orders per Seasonper SeasonTwo ordering policies:Two ordering policies:A single order must arrive at the beginning of the A single order must arrive at the beginning of the season
43、 to cover the entire seasons demandseason to cover the entire seasons demandTwo orders are placed in the season, one arriving Two orders are placed in the season, one arriving at the beginning of the season and the other at the beginning of the season and the other arriving at the beginning of the e
44、ighth weekarriving at the beginning of the eighth weekTwo situations:Two situations:The buyers forecast accuracy doesnt improve for The buyers forecast accuracy doesnt improve for second ordersecond orderThe buyers forecast accuracy does improve for The buyers forecast accuracy does improve for seco
45、nd ordersecond order26Impact of Quick Response: Forecast doesnt improve Impact of Quick Response: Forecast doesnt improve for second order (SD=15 )for second order (SD=15 )20 7 + 1.75 15209 2 - 69Single Order Single Order Two Orders in Season Two Orders in Season Service Service Level Level Order Or
46、der Size Size Average Average OverstocOverstock k Expect. Expect. Profit Profit Initial Initial OrderOrderOUL for OUL for 2 2ndnd Order Order Average Average Total Total Order Order Ending Ending Invent. Invent. Expect. Expect. Profit Profit 0.96 0.96 378 378 97 97 $23,624 $23,624 209 209 209 209 34
47、9 349 6969$26,590 $26,590 0.940.943673678686$24,034$24,0342012012012013423426060$27,085$27,0850.910.913553557373$24,617 $24,617 1931931931933323325252$27,154$27,1540.870.873433436666$24,386 $24,386 1841841841843193194343$26,944$26,9440.810.813293295555$24,609 $24,609 1741741741743133133636$27,413$27
48、,4130.750.753173174141$25,205 $25,205 1661661661663023023232$26,916$26,91620 14 + 1.75 1527Observations Observations Its possible to provide the same level of product availability to Its possible to provide the same level of product availability to the customer with less inventory if a second follow
49、-up order is the customer with less inventory if a second follow-up order is allowed allowed The average overstock to be disposed of at the end of the The average overstock to be disposed of at the end of the sales season is less if two orders are allowedsales season is less if two orders are allowe
50、dThe profits are higher if second order is allowedThe profits are higher if second order is allowed28Leftover Inventory vs. Number of Leftover Inventory vs. Number of Order Cycles per SeasonOrder Cycles per SeasonUnsold Inventory at End of SeasonNumber of Order Cycles per Season29Expected Profit vs.
51、 Number of Expected Profit vs. Number of Order Cycles per SeasonOrder Cycles per SeasonExpected ProfitNumber of Order Cycles per Season30Forecast Improves for Second Forecast Improves for Second Order (SD=3 instead of 15)Order (SD=3 instead of 15)Single Order Two Orders in Season Service Level Order
52、 Size Average Overstock Expect. Profit Initial OrderOUL for 2nd Order Average Total Order Ending Invent. Expect. Profit 0.96 378 96 $23,707 209 153 292 19 $27,007 0.9436784$24,30320115229318$27,3710.9135576$24,154 19315028817$26,9460.8734363$24,807 18414828814$27,5830.8132952$24,998 17414628314$27,1
53、620.7531744$24,887 16614528214$27,26820 7 + 1.75 331NotesNotesQuick response is clearly advantageous to a retailer.Quick response is clearly advantageous to a retailer.But as the retailer order size drops, the manufacturer But as the retailer order size drops, the manufacturer sells less to the reta
54、iler. Thus, the manufacturer sells less to the retailer. Thus, the manufacturer make a lower profit in the short term if all else is make a lower profit in the short term if all else is unchanged. It seems to benefit retailer at the unchanged. It seems to benefit retailer at the expense of the manuf
55、acturer.expense of the manufacturer.32Meaning of PostponementMeaning of PostponementDelay the timing of the crucial processes in which Delay the timing of the crucial processes in which end products assume their specific functionality, end products assume their specific functionality, features, iden
56、tities, or personalityfeatures, identities, or personalityCan be viewed as information strategyCan be viewed as information strategy3 different kinds of postponement:3 different kinds of postponement:pull, logistics, formpull, logistics, form33Pull PostponementPull PostponementBTS vs BTOBTS vs BTODe
57、coupling point: the point from which the process Decoupling point: the point from which the process switches from a build-to-stock mode to the build-to-switches from a build-to-stock mode to the build-to-order mode.order mode.Meaning of pull postponement:Meaning of pull postponement:Making the decou
58、pling point earlier in the process.Making the decoupling point earlier in the process.34Pull PostponementPull PostponementBasic Elements:Basic Elements:The process steps must be sequenced so that the The process steps must be sequenced so that the less differentiating steps are performed at prior to
59、 less differentiating steps are performed at prior to the decoupling point.the decoupling point.After the decoupling point, the process steps can After the decoupling point, the process steps can be performed flexible and fast.be performed flexible and fast.Accurate order capture for BTO.Accurate or
60、der capture for BTO.Example: National Bicycle, Benetton.Example: National Bicycle, Benetton.35延遲差異化延遲差異化(Postponement Differentiation)(Postponement Differentiation)之之意義意義此種延遲主要是運用在最終此種延遲主要是運用在最終產產品的需求未確品的需求未確定時定時, ,先生先生產產一些通用或一些通用或產產品族共通的部分品族共通的部分, ,等到特定的等到特定的產產品需求確定後再進行生品需求確定後再進行生產產或製或製造造, ,以減少不確定性
61、以減少不確定性延遲差異化延遲差異化36延遲差異化的做法延遲差異化的做法作業程序的重排序作業程序的重排序(Resequencing)(Resequencing)例子例子: Benetton, postpone dyeing until after : Benetton, postpone dyeing until after assembled. Cost: 10% more expensive, new assembled. Cost: 10% more expensive, new machine purchased and employee retrained.machine purcha
62、sed and employee retrained.例子例子: US disk drive manufacturing. Insert generic : US disk drive manufacturing. Insert generic circuit board into assembly, complete much of the circuit board into assembly, complete much of the testing, remove the generic circuit board, and add testing, remove the generi
63、c circuit board, and add customer-specific boards later.customer-specific boards later.37延遲差異化的做法延遲差異化的做法產產品的共通性品的共通性(Commonality)(Commonality)利用利用產產品線或品線或產產品族的重新設計來達成品族的重新設計來達成例子例子: Printer manufacturing, redesign the new : Printer manufacturing, redesign the new and old products to share a common
64、circuit board and old products to share a common circuit board and printhead such that final process can be and printhead such that final process can be delayed.delayed.38延遲差異化的做法延遲差異化的做法模組化模組化(Modularity)(Modularity)： 模組化模組化產產品設計：將功能採模組化，使各個模組能品設計：將功能採模組化，使各個模組能夠夠簡易且以較低成本的添加到簡易且以較低成本的添加到產產品上。例子：品上。
65、例子： HP HP Laser JetLaser Jet模組化製程設計：製程應設計盡量獨立的生模組化製程設計：製程應設計盡量獨立的生產產模組，模組，容易因應不同的要求進行彈性的調整。例子：容易因應不同的要求進行彈性的調整。例子：print-print-and-pigment mixture, Levis jeansand-pigment mixture, Levis jeans39延遲差異化的做法延遲差異化的做法標準化標準化(Standardization):(Standardization):建立數種顧客所需的標準化建立數種顧客所需的標準化產產品之選擇品之選擇. .機動敏捷的供應網路機動敏捷
66、的供應網路(Agile Supply Networks)(Agile Supply Networks)某些網路節點存放基本的某些網路節點存放基本的產產品品, , 並在收到顧並在收到顧客訂單時進行客製化的最後作業客訂單時進行客製化的最後作業. .40延遲差異化施行的考量延遲差異化施行的考量重新排序或延遲時所需資本投入之考量。重新排序或延遲時所需資本投入之考量。重新排序或延遲時所需技術與能力之考量。重新排序或延遲時所需技術與能力之考量。延遲的結果可能使存貨成本提高。延遲的結果可能使存貨成本提高。在國際運籌作業中，各進出口國對原物料，零在國際運籌作業中，各進出口國對原物料，零組件或在製品的關組件或在
67、製品的關稅稅考量。考量。41Logistics PostponementLogistics PostponementMeaning:Meaning:Redesign the tasks in the SC so that some of Redesign the tasks in the SC so that some of the customization steps can be performed the customization steps can be performed downstream closer to the customers.downstream closer t
68、o the customers.42Concurrent and Parallel ProcessingConcurrent and Parallel ProcessingConcurrent and parallel processing involves Concurrent and parallel processing involves modifying the manufacturing process so that steps modifying the manufacturing process so that steps that were previously perfo
69、rmed in a sequence can that were previously performed in a sequence can be completed at the same time.be completed at the same time.reduce lead timereduce lead timereduce inventory costreduce inventory costA key is the concept of modularity or decouplingA key is the concept of modularity or decoupli
70、ng43can not lead to quality degradation.can not lead to quality degradation.downstream sites have capability to perform the task downstream sites have capability to perform the task without excessive cost and time.without excessive cost and time.potentially to procure the necessary components or pot
71、entially to procure the necessary components or modules for the customization.modules for the customization.the engineering team is able and willing to design the engineering team is able and willing to design products and processes to defer the steps products and processes to defer the steps effect
72、ively.effectively.Requirements for logistics postponementRequirements for logistics postponement44Form PostponementForm PostponementMeaning:Meaning:postponement is achieved through the change in postponement is achieved through the change in the form of the product structure by standardizing the for
73、m of the product structure by standardizing some of the process steps or components.some of the process steps or components.Example: HP Laser Printer.Example: HP Laser Printer. 45Products or processes should be modular in Products or processes should be modular in structure.structure.Design engineer
74、 should be aware of the importance Design engineer should be aware of the importance of SCM to pursuit design for postponement of SCM to pursuit design for postponement opportunity.opportunity.Must involve multiple functions or organization in Must involve multiple functions or organization in colla
75、boration.collaboration.Quantify the costs and benefits to determine the best Quantify the costs and benefits to determine the best point for postponement point for postponement Postponement EnablersPostponement Enablers46The Value of PostponementThe Value of PostponementImprove matching of supply an
76、d demand: need to Improve matching of supply and demand: need to qualify the benefit with additional costqualify the benefit with additional costIncrease profitability: differentiate after receiving Increase profitability: differentiate after receiving customer order so that inventories can be reduc
77、edcustomer order so that inventories can be reducedValuable for selling a large variety of products with Valuable for selling a large variety of products with demand that is independent and comparable in sizedemand that is independent and comparable in size47Value of Postponement: BenettonValue of P
78、ostponement: BenettonFor each colorFor each colorMean demand = 1,000; SD = 500Mean demand = 1,000; SD = 500For each garmentFor each garmentSale price = $50Sale price = $50Salvage value = $10Salvage value = $10Production cost using option 1 (thread are dyed and the Production cost using option 1 (thr
79、ead are dyed and the garment was knitted) with long lead time = $20garment was knitted) with long lead time = $20Production cost using option 2 (dying was postponed until Production cost using option 2 (dying was postponed until after the garment was knitted) = $22after the garment was knitted) = $2
80、2What is the value of postponement?What is the value of postponement?48Value of Postponement: BenettonValue of Postponement: BenettonOption 1:Option 1: CSLCSL* = (* = (p p - - c c) /() /(p p - - s s) = 30/40 = 0.75) = 30/40 = 0.75OO* = * = NORMINVNORMINV(0.75, 1000, 500) = 1,337 units of each color(
81、0.75, 1000, 500) = 1,337 units of each colorExpected profits from each color = $23,644Expected profits from each color = $23,644Expected overstock for each color = 412Expected overstock for each color = 412Expected understock for each color = 75 Expected understock for each color = 75 5348 sweaters
82、are produced, expected profit of $94,576 5348 sweaters are produced, expected profit of $94,576 with an average of 1,648 sweaters sold on clearance and with an average of 1,648 sweaters sold on clearance and 300 customers turns away for lack of sweaters300 customers turns away for lack of sweaters49
83、Value of Postponement: BenettonValue of Postponement: BenettonOption 2: c = $22 instead of $20Option 2: c = $22 instead of $20CSLCSL* = (* = (p p - - c c) /() /(p p - - s s) = 28/40 = 0.70) = 28/40 = 0.70OO* *A A = = NORMINVNORMINV(0.70, 1000(0.70, 1000 4 4, 500, 500 ) = 4,524 units) = 4,524 unitsEx
84、pected profits = $98,092Expected profits = $98,092Expected overstock for each color = 715Expected overstock for each color = 715Expected understock for each color = 190Expected understock for each color = 190Expected profit increases from $94,576 to $98,092Expected profit increases from $94,576 to $
85、98,092Expected overstock declines from 1,648 to 715Expected overstock declines from 1,648 to 715Expected understock declines from 300 to 190Expected understock declines from 300 to 19050Value of Postponement with Value of Postponement with Dominant ProductDominant ProductColor with dominant demand (
86、red): Mean = 3,100, SD = 800Other three colors: Mean = 300, SD = 200Option 1:CSL* = 0.75Optimal production of red sweaters O* = NORMINV(0.75, 3100, 800) = 3,640; expected profit = $82,831, expected overstock = 659, expected understock = 119Optimal production of each other color sweater = 435; expect
87、ed profit = $6,458, expected overstock = 165, expected understock = 30Total production = 4,945, expected profit = $102,205, expected overstock = 1,154, expected understock = 20951Value of Postponement with Dominant Value of Postponement with Dominant ProductProductOption 2:A = 3100 + 3300 = 4,000; A
88、 = Total production = 4,457; expected profit = $99,872, expected overstock = 623, expected understock = 166Expected profit without postponement = $102,205Expected profit with postponement = $99,87252Meaning of Pure PostponementMeaning of Pure PostponementPostponement may reduce overall profit for a
89、firm if a Postponement may reduce overall profit for a firm if a single product contributes the majority of the single product contributes the majority of the demand, since the increased manufacturing expense demand, since the increased manufacturing expense due to postponement outweighs the small b
90、enefit due to postponement outweighs the small benefit from aggregationfrom aggregation53Tailored Postponement: BenettonTailored Postponement: BenettonOn the portion of the certain demand, postponement provides little value, thus, company needs to use lower cost method.On the portion of the uncertai
91、n demand, postponement significantly improves forecast accuracy, thus, company is willing to incur higher cost to achieve the benefit.Produce Q1 units for each color using Option 1 and QA units (aggregate) using Option 254Tailored Postponement: BenettonTailored Postponement: BenettonManufacturing Po
92、licyManufacturing PolicyAverageAverageProfitProfitAverageAverageOverstockOverstockAverageAverageUnderstockUnderstockQQ1 1QQA A0 045244524$97847$97847510510210210133713370 0$94377$943771369136928228270070018501850$102730$10273030830816816880080015501550$104603$104603427427170170900900950950$101326$10
93、132660760726626690090010501050$101647$10164766466423023010001000850850$100312$10031281581519519510001000950950$100951$10095180380314914911001100550550$99180$991801026102621121111001100650650$100510$1005101008100818518555The Benefit of Tailored PostponementThe Benefit of Tailored PostponementTailored
94、 postponement allows a firm to increase its Tailored postponement allows a firm to increase its profitability by postponing only the uncertain part of profitability by postponing only the uncertain part of the demand and producing the predictable part at a the demand and producing the predictable pa
95、rt at a lower cost without postponementlower cost without postponement56The Meaning of Tailored SourcingThe Meaning of Tailored SourcingA combination of two supply sources: one focusing A combination of two supply sources: one focusing on cost but unable to handle uncertainty well, and the on cost b
96、ut unable to handle uncertainty well, and the other focusing on flexibility to handle uncertainty but other focusing on flexibility to handle uncertainty but a higher costa higher costA backup policyA backup policyDisadvantage: increasing complexity of Disadvantage: increasing complexity of implemen
97、tationimplementation57Tailored SourcingTailored SourcingSourcing alternativesSourcing alternativesLow cost, long lead time supplierLow cost, long lead time supplier5 5Cost = $245, Lead time = 9 weeksCost = $245, Lead time = 9 weeksHigh cost, short lead time supplierHigh cost, short lead time supplie
98、r5 5Cost = $250, Lead time = 1 weekCost = $250, Lead time = 1 week58Tailored Sourcing StrategiesTailored Sourcing StrategiesFraction of demand from Fraction of demand from overseas supplieroverseas supplierAnnual ProfitAnnual Profit0%0%$37,250$37,25050%50%$51,613$51,61360%60%$53,027$53,027100%100%$4
99、8,875$48,87559Tailored Sourcing: Multiple Sourcing SitesTailored Sourcing: Multiple Sourcing SitesCharacteristicCharacteristicPrimary SitePrimary SiteSecondary SiteSecondary SiteManufacturing CostManufacturing CostHighHighLowLowFlexibility Flexibility (Volume/Mix)(Volume/Mix)HighHighLowLowResponsive
100、nessResponsivenessHighHighLowLowEngineering SupportEngineering SupportHighHighLowLow60Dual Sourcing StrategiesDual Sourcing StrategiesStrategyStrategyPrimary Site Primary Site Secondary Site Secondary Site Volume based dual Volume based dual sourcing (Benetton)sourcing (Benetton)FluctuationFluctuati
101、onStable demandStable demandProduct based dual Product based dual sourcing(Levi sourcing(Levi Strauss)Strauss)Unpredictable Unpredictable products, Small products, Small batchbatchPredictable, large Predictable, large batch productsbatch productsModel based dual Model based dual sourcingsourcingNewe
102、r productsNewer productsOlder stable Older stable productsproducts 61Contracts for Product Availability and Contracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain ProfitsSupply Chain ProfitsMany shortcomings in supply chain performance occur because the buyer and supplier are separate organizations and
103、 each tries to optimize its own profitTotal supply chain profits might therefore be lower than if the supply chain coordinated actions to have a common objective of maximizing total supply chain profitsDouble marginalization results in suboptimal order quantityAn approach to dealing with this proble
104、m is to design a contract that encourages a buyer to purchase more and increase the level of product availabilityThe supplier must share in some of the buyers demand uncertainty62Contracts for Product Availability and Contracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain ProfitsSupply Chain ProfitsMan
105、y shortcomings in supply chain performance occur because the buyer and supplier are separate organizations and each tries to optimize its own profitTotal supply chain profits might therefore be lower than if the supply chain coordinated actions to have a common objective of maximizing total supply c
106、hain profitsDouble marginalization results in suboptimal order quantityAn approach to dealing with this problem is to design a contract that encourages a buyer to purchase more and increase the level of product availabilityThe supplier must share in some of the buyers demand uncertaintyImpact of Sup
107、ply Chain Contracts on Impact of Supply Chain Contracts on Profitability: Buyback ContractsProfitability: Buyback ContractsBuybacks by publishersBuybacks by publishersTech Fiber produces jacket at v = $10 and charges a wholesale Tech Fiber produces jacket at v = $10 and charges a wholesale price of
108、c = $100. Ski Adventure sells jacket for p = $200. price of c = $100. Ski Adventure sells jacket for p = $200. Demand is normal distributed with Demand is normal distributed with =1,000 and =1,000 and =300. =300. Unsold Unsold jackets have no salvage value. jackets have no salvage value. Should TF b
109、e willing to buy back unsold jackets? Why?Should TF be willing to buy back unsold jackets? Why?CSLSA = 0.5, SA orders 1,000, expected profit = $76,063; TF CSLSA = 0.5, SA orders 1,000, expected profit = $76,063; TF sells 1,000 for a total profit of $90,000. Total expected SC profit sells 1,000 for a
110、 total profit of $90,000. Total expected SC profit = $166,063= $166,06363Impact of Supply Chain Contracts on Impact of Supply Chain Contracts on Profitability: Buyback ContractsProfitability: Buyback ContractsBuybacks by publishersBuybacks by publishersTech Fiber produces jacket at v = $10 and charg
111、es a wholesale Tech Fiber produces jacket at v = $10 and charges a wholesale price of c = $100. Ski Adventure sells jacket for p = $200. price of c = $100. Ski Adventure sells jacket for p = $200. Demand is normal distributed with Demand is normal distributed with =1,000 and =1,000 and =300. =300. U
112、nsold Unsold jackets have no salvage value. jackets have no salvage value. Should TF be willing to buy back unsold jackets? Why?Should TF be willing to buy back unsold jackets? Why?CSLSA = 0.5, SA orders 1,000, expected profit = $76,063; TF CSLSA = 0.5, SA orders 1,000, expected profit = $76,063; TF
113、 sells 1,000 for a total profit of $90,000. Total expected SC profit sells 1,000 for a total profit of $90,000. Total expected SC profit = $166,063= $166,06364The Categories of Supply ContractThe Categories of Supply ContractHorizon LengthPricing: linear (proportional) or non-linear (two-part tariff
114、); buyback, holding cost subsidies, payment for inability to supplyPeriodicity of ordering: fixed or randomQuantity commitment:Total minimum commitment: quantity or dollar valuePeriodical commitmentDemand commitmentCapacity commitment65The Categories of Supply ContractThe Categories of Supply Contra
115、ctFlexibility:Flexibility:Magnitude or frequency of adjustmentsMagnitude or frequency of adjustmentsDelivery commitment:Delivery commitment:Lead timeLead timeShipment policyShipment policyQuality: defect rates, specificationsQuality: defect rates, specificationsInformation sharingInformation sharing
116、66Supplier Selection and ContractsSupplier Selection and ContractsContracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain ProfitsContracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain ProfitsBuyback ContractsBuyback ContractsRevenue-Sharing ContractsRevenue-Sharing ContractsQuantity Flexibility ContractsQu
117、antity Flexibility ContractsContracts to Coordinate Supply Chain CostsContracts to Coordinate Supply Chain CostsContracts to Increase Agent EffortContracts to Increase Agent EffortContracts to Induce Performance ImprovementContracts to Induce Performance Improvement67Impact of Supply Chain Contracts
118、 on Impact of Supply Chain Contracts on Profitability: Buyback ContractsProfitability: Buyback ContractsBuybacks by publishersBuybacks by publishersTech Fiber produces jacket at v = $10 and charges a wholesale Tech Fiber produces jacket at v = $10 and charges a wholesale price of c = $100. Ski Adven
119、ture sells jacket for p = $200. price of c = $100. Ski Adventure sells jacket for p = $200. Demand is normal distributed with Demand is normal distributed with =1,000 and =1,000 and =300. =300. Unsold Unsold jackets have no salvage value. jackets have no salvage value. Should TF be willing to buy ba
120、ck unsold jackets? Why?Should TF be willing to buy back unsold jackets? Why?CSLSA = 0.5, SA orders 1,000, expected profit = $76,063; TF CSLSA = 0.5, SA orders 1,000, expected profit = $76,063; TF sells 1,000 for a total profit of $90,000. Total expected SC profit sells 1,000 for a total profit of $9
121、0,000. Total expected SC profit = $166,063= $166,06368Impact of Supply Chain Contracts on Impact of Supply Chain Contracts on Profitability: Buyback ContractsProfitability: Buyback ContractsFor entire SC, SC makes $190 for each jacket sold, For entire SC, SC makes $190 for each jacket sold, and only
122、 loses $10. Thus, the cost of understocking and only loses $10. Thus, the cost of understocking is $190, and the cost of overstock is $10.is $190, and the cost of overstock is $10.The optimal CSL for entire SC is 0.95 and produce The optimal CSL for entire SC is 0.95 and produce 1,493 jackets. Total
123、 SC profit is $183,812.1,493 jackets. Total SC profit is $183,812.69Return Policy : Buyback contractsReturn Policy : Buyback contractsIssue of Double MarginalizationWholesale price cBuyback price bManufacturing salvage value $sMThe salvage value for retailer is s=bOptimal order quantity O* Expected
124、manufacturing profit = O*(c-v) b expected overstock at retailer70Buyback ContractsBuyback ContractsWholesalWholesale Price ce Price cBuy-Buy-back back price bprice bOptimal Optimal Order Order Size for Size for SASAExpected Expected Profit for Profit for SASAExpected Expected Returns Returns to TFto
125、 TFExpected Expected Profit for Profit for TFTFExpectedExpectedSupply Supply Chain Chain ProfitProfit$100$100$0$0100010007606376063120120900009000016606316606310010030301067106780154801541561569133891338171492171492100100606011701170857248572422322391886918861776101776101101100 096296266252662521021
126、029623096230162482162482110110787811911191780747807423923910048010048017855517855511011010510514861486869388693849349396872968721838101838101201200 09249245681956819808010164010164015845915845912012096961221122170508705082612611092251092251797331797331201201161161501150177500775005065061063101063101
127、8381018381071Buyback ContractsBuyback ContractsManufactures can use buyback contracts to increase their own profit as well as total supply chain profits. Buyback contract also encourage retailers increase product availabilityManufactures need to consider the cost associated with a returnAs the cost
128、associated with a return increases, buyback contracts become less attractive.Applications: (1) bookstores return the cover of the book to reduce the cost of return; (2) manufactures use holding cost subsidies.72Allows a retailer to return unsold inventory up to a specified amount at an agreed upon p
129、riceIncreases the optimal order quantity for the retailer, resulting in higher product availability and higher profits for both the retailer and the supplierMost effective for products with low variable cost, such as music, software, books, magazines, and newspapersHigh tech industry provides price
130、support for retailers due to price drop rapidlyContracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain Contracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain Profits: Buyback ContractsProfits: Buyback Contracts73Contracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain Contracts for Product Availability and Supp
131、ly Chain Profits: Buyback ContractsProfits: Buyback ContractsDownside:Results in surplus inventory that must be disposed of, which increases supply chain costsLead the retailer to exert less effort to sellMay increase information distortion through the supply chain because the supply chain reacts to
132、 retail orders, not actual customer demand74Revenue Sharing ContractsRevenue Sharing ContractsManufacture charges the retailer a low wholesale price and shares a fraction of the revenue generated by the retailer.The retailer cost will be decreased due to lower overstock cost, thus, retailer will inc
133、rease the level of product availability resulting higher profits for both manufacturer and retailer.75Revenue Sharing ContractsRevenue Sharing ContractsManufacturers production cost = vManufacturers production cost = vWholesale price charged by manufacturer = cWholesale price charged by manufacturer
134、 = cManufacturer shares a fraction f of the retailers revenueManufacturer shares a fraction f of the retailers revenueRetailer charges a retail price p and has a salvage value sR for Retailer charges a retail price p and has a salvage value sR for unsold items. unsold items. The understocking cost =
135、 Cu = (1-f)p cThe understocking cost = Cu = (1-f)p cThe overstocking cost = Co = c sR The overstocking cost = Co = c sR 76Revenue Sharing ContractsRevenue Sharing Contracts77Revenue Sharing ContractsRevenue Sharing ContractsExample: TF charges only c = $10 for each jacket, Example: TF charges only c
136、 = $10 for each jacket, SA sells the jacket for p = $200 and shares f of the SA sells the jacket for p = $200 and shares f of the revenue to TF. Demand at this price is normal revenue to TF. Demand at this price is normal distributed with a mean 1000 and a standard distributed with a mean 1000 and a
137、 standard deviation 300. Assume that no salvage value for any deviation 300. Assume that no salvage value for any leftover jackets.leftover jackets.78Revenue Sharing ContractsRevenue Sharing ContractsWholesale Wholesale Price cPrice cRevenue-Revenue-SharingSharingFraction Fraction f fOptimal Optimal
138、 Order Size Order Size for SAfor SAExpected Expected OverstockOverstockAt SAAt SAExpected Expected Profit for Profit for SASAExpected Expected Profit for Profit for TFTFExpectedExpectedSupply Supply Chain ProfitChain Profit$10$100.30.314401440449449124273124273594295942918370218370210100.50.51384138
139、43993998473584735985809858018331518331510100.70.712901290317317455034550313627813627818178118178110100.90.9100010001201207606760615845715845716606316606320200.30.313201320342342110523110523718867188618240918240920200.50.512521252286286716017160110917610917618077718077720200.70.7112911291951953345533
140、45514205114205117550617550679Revenue Sharing ContractsRevenue Sharing ContractsObservations: revenue sharing with a lower Observations: revenue sharing with a lower wholesale price allows both retailers and wholesale price allows both retailers and manufactures to increase their profit. The revenue
141、manufactures to increase their profit. The revenue sharing encourages retailers to increase the level of sharing encourages retailers to increase the level of product availabilityproduct availabilityApplications: video rental industry, such as Applications: video rental industry, such as Blockbuster
142、.Blockbuster.80Contracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain Contracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain Profits: Revenue Sharing ContractsProfits: Revenue Sharing ContractsThe buyer pays a minimal amount for each unit The buyer pays a minimal amount for each unit purchased from the su
143、pplier but shares a fraction of purchased from the supplier but shares a fraction of the revenue for each unit soldthe revenue for each unit soldDecreases the cost per unit charged to the retailer, Decreases the cost per unit charged to the retailer, which effectively decreases the cost of overstock
144、ingwhich effectively decreases the cost of overstocking81Contracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain Contracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain Profits: Revenue Sharing ContractsProfits: Revenue Sharing ContractsHave a similar effect as buyback contracts but eliminate the cost Have
145、a similar effect as buyback contracts but eliminate the cost of returnsof returnsLower retailer effortLower retailer effortSuited for products with low variable cost and a high cost of Suited for products with low variable cost and a high cost of returnreturnResult in supply chain information distor
146、tionResult in supply chain information distortionEnabler: require an information infrastructure to monitor sales at Enabler: require an information infrastructure to monitor sales at retailerretailer82Quantity Flexibility ContractsQuantity Flexibility ContractsIf a retailer order O units the manufac
147、turer commits to supplying If a retailer order O units the manufacturer commits to supplying up to Q = (1+up to Q = (1+ )O and the retailer commits to buying q = (1-)O and the retailer commits to buying q = (1- )O)OHow can quantity flexibility contracts help increase profitability?How can quantity f
148、lexibility contracts help increase profitability?83Quantity Flexibility ContractsQuantity Flexibility ContractsManufacturing cost per unit: vManufacturing cost per unit: vWholesale price: cWholesale price: cRetailing price: pRetailing price: pRetailer salvage value: sRRetailer salvage value: sRManuf
149、acture salvage value: sMManufacture salvage value: sMDemand Demand ( (2)2)84Quantity Flexibility ContractsQuantity Flexibility ContractsScenario:Scenario:Retailer orders O units, manufacture commits to supply Q Retailer orders O units, manufacture commits to supply Q unitsunitsManufacturer produces
150、Q unitsManufacturer produces Q unitsRetailer purchases q units if demand R is less than q; R Retailer purchases q units if demand R is less than q; R units of demand R is between q and Q; Q units if demand is units of demand R is between q and Q; Q units if demand is higher than Qhigher than Q85Quan
151、tity Flexibility ContractsQuantity Flexibility Contracts5 5Expected quantity sold by retailerExpected quantity sold by retailer5 5Expected quantity purchased by retailerExpected quantity purchased by retailer865 5Expected overstock at retailerExpected overstock at retailer5 5Expected retailer profit
152、Expected retailer profit5 5Expected manufacture profitExpected manufacture profitQuantity Flexibility ContractsQuantity Flexibility Contracts87Quantity Flexibility ContractsQuantity Flexibility Contracts WholesalWholesale price ce price c Order Order size Osize O Expected Expected purchase purchase
153、by SAby SA Expected Expected sale by sale by SASA Expected Expected profits for profits for SASA Expected Expected profits for profits for TFTF Expected Expected supply supply chain profitchain profit 0.000.000.000.00$100$1001,0001,0001,000 1,000 880880$76,063$76,063$90,000$90,000$166,063$166,0630.2
154、00.200.200.20$100$1001,050 1,050 1,0241,024968968$91,167$91,167$89,830$89,830$180,997$180,9970.400.400.400.40$100$1001,070 1,070 1,011 1,011 994994$97,689$97,689$86,122$86,122$183,811$183,8110.000.000.000.00$110$110962962962962860860$66,252$66,252$96,200$96,200$162,452$162,4520.150.150.150.15$110$11
155、01,014 1,014 1,009 1,009 945945$78,153$78,153$99,282$99,282$177,435$177,4350.420.420.420.42$110$1101,048 1,048 1,0071,007993993$87,932$87,932$95,879$95,879$183,811$183,8110.000.000.000.00$120$120924924924924838838$56,819$56,819$101,64$101,640 0$158,459$158,4590.20.20.20.2$120$1201,0001,0001,000 1,00
156、0 955955$70,933$70,933$108,00$108,000 0$178,933$178,9330.50.50.50.5$120$1201,040 1,040 1,003 1,003 996996$78,874$78,874$104,80$104,803 3$183,677$183,67788Quantity Flexibility ContractQuantity Flexibility ContractCommon for components in the electronic and Common for components in the electronic and
157、computer industrycomputer industryExample:Example: Benetton: retailer required to place order 7 months before Benetton: retailer required to place order 7 months before delivery, but allow retailer to alter up to 30% quantity ordered delivery, but allow retailer to alter up to 30% quantity ordered i
158、n any color and assign to another color 3 months before in any color and assign to another color 3 months before delivery and allow retailer to alter up to 10% after the start of delivery and allow retailer to alter up to 10% after the start of the seasonthe season89Allows the buyer to modify the or
159、der (within limits) as Allows the buyer to modify the order (within limits) as demand visibility increases closer to the point of saledemand visibility increases closer to the point of saleBetter matching of supply and demandBetter matching of supply and demandIncreased overall supply chain profits
160、if the supplier Increased overall supply chain profits if the supplier has flexible capacityhas flexible capacityCan be effective if a supplier sells to multiple retailers Can be effective if a supplier sells to multiple retailers with independent demandwith independent demandContracts for Product A
161、vailability and Supply Chain Contracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain Profits: Quantity Flexibility ContractsProfits: Quantity Flexibility Contracts90Contracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain Contracts for Product Availability and Supply Chain Profits: Quantity Flexibility Contr
162、actsProfits: Quantity Flexibility ContractsDownsize:Downsize:Supplier needs to have inventory or excess flexible capacitySupplier needs to have inventory or excess flexible capacityLower levels of information distortion than either buyback Lower levels of information distortion than either buyback c
163、ontracts or revenue sharing contracts due to aggregation of contracts or revenue sharing contracts due to aggregation of uncertainty from supplieruncertainty from supplierLower retailer effortLower retailer effort91Vendor-Managed Inventory(VMI)Vendor-Managed Inventory(VMI)VMI: manufacturer or suppli
164、er is responsible for all decisions VMI: manufacturer or supplier is responsible for all decisions regarding product inventories at the retailerregarding product inventories at the retailerRequirements: share info from retailersRequirements: share info from retailersBenefits:Benefits:Increase profit
165、 of manufacturerIncrease profit of manufacturerImprove manufacturer forecast accuracyImprove manufacturer forecast accuracyAvoid double marginalizationAvoid double marginalizationDrawbacks:Drawbacks:Impact of product substitution to bring higher inventory in Impact of product substitution to bring h
166、igher inventory in retailerretailer92CRCRCPCPCFCFCPFR ModelCPFR Model1. 1.協同合作協議協同合作協議2. 2.協同商業計劃協同商業計劃3. 3.共同的銷售預測共同的銷售預測4. 4.例外狀況的判定例外狀況的判定與處理與處理5. 5.共同的訂單預測共同的訂單預測6. 6.例外狀況的判定例外狀況的判定與處理與處理7. 7.訂單產生訂單產生Business Wire網站93CPFR避免不必要庫存庫存成本報廢外部庫存提升流程效率增加收益提高物流利用率避免缺貨提高促銷效率提升業績訂單管理採購人力管理提高配送效率整合運輸管理導入CPF
167、R的好處94協同規劃，預測與補貨協同規劃，預測與補貨(Collaborative Planning, (Collaborative Planning, Forecasting, and Replenishment, CPFR)Forecasting, and Replenishment, CPFR)目標：目標：對共同作業過程，格式與績效指標的協調一致對共同作業過程，格式與績效指標的協調一致透過透過POSPOS資料，分享一個共同預測與需求規劃資料，分享一個共同預測與需求規劃在一個協調機制下，對需求滿足，滿足的優先在一個協調機制下，對需求滿足，滿足的優先次序與供應分配的管理之相互溝通次序與供應分配
168、的管理之相互溝通對未來促銷的預先通知以減少長鞭效應對未來促銷的預先通知以減少長鞭效應透過共同技術的分享，使需求，存貨與運送的透過共同技術的分享，使需求，存貨與運送的資料更透明化資料更透明化95協同規劃，預測與補貨協同規劃，預測與補貨(CPFR)(CPFR)指導原則：指導原則：共同交易架構的建立：語言，作業模式，與共同交易架構的建立：語言，作業模式，與資料標準資料標準企業的流程必須清楚定義企業的流程必須清楚定義作業的流程與共同的術語必須轉換成特定與作業的流程與共同的術語必須轉換成特定與共同的標準共同的標準96協同規劃，預測與補貨協同規劃，預測與補貨(CPFR)(CPFR)績效指標：績效指標：預測
169、準確度的提升預測準確度的提升顧客服務水準的提高顧客服務水準的提高缺貨率的降低缺貨率的降低存貨水準的降低存貨水準的降低較佳的財務資金結構較佳的財務資金結構97CPFR RoadmapCPFR RoadmapPublished by VICS (Interindustry Commerce Published by VICS (Interindustry Commerce Standard Association)Standard Association)Nine steps:Nine steps:Develop guidelines for the relationshipsDevelop gu
170、idelines for the relationshipsDevelop a joint business planDevelop a joint business planCreate a sales forecastCreate a sales forecastIdentify exceptions for the sales forecastIdentify exceptions for the sales forecastCollaborate on exception itemsCollaborate on exception itemsCreate an order foreca
171、stCreate an order forecastIdentify exceptions for the order forecastIdentify exceptions for the order forecastResolve/collaborate on exception itemsResolve/collaborate on exception itemsGenerate ordersGenerate orders98Differences in costs at the buyer and supplier can lead to Differences in costs at
172、 the buyer and supplier can lead to decisions that increase total supply chain costsdecisions that increase total supply chain costsExample: Replenishment order size placed by the buyer. The Example: Replenishment order size placed by the buyer. The buyers EOQ does not take into account the supplier
173、s costs.buyers EOQ does not take into account the suppliers costs.A quantity discount contract may encourage the buyer to A quantity discount contract may encourage the buyer to purchase a larger quantity (which would be lower costs for the purchase a larger quantity (which would be lower costs for
174、the supplier), which would result in lower total supply chain costs supplier), which would result in lower total supply chain costs but higher inventory levels and lot sizesbut higher inventory levels and lot sizesQuantity discounts lead to information distortion because of Quantity discounts lead t
175、o information distortion because of order batchingorder batchingContracts to CoordinateContracts to CoordinateSupply Chain CostsSupply Chain Costs99There are many instances in a supply chain where an agent There are many instances in a supply chain where an agent acts on the behalf of a principal an
176、d the agents actions affect acts on the behalf of a principal and the agents actions affect the reward for the principalthe reward for the principalExample: A car dealer who sells the cars of a manufacturer, as Example: A car dealer who sells the cars of a manufacturer, as well as those of other man
177、ufacturerswell as those of other manufacturersExamples of contracts to increase agent effort include two-part Examples of contracts to increase agent effort include two-part tariffs (a franchise fee and sell product at cost) and threshold tariffs (a franchise fee and sell product at cost) and thresh
178、old contracts (increasing margin to dealer for higher threshold)contracts (increasing margin to dealer for higher threshold)Threshold contracts increase information distortion, however. Threshold contracts increase information distortion, however. One way to offer threshold incentives over a rolling
179、 horizon.One way to offer threshold incentives over a rolling horizon.Contracts to Increase Agent EffortContracts to Increase Agent Effort100A buyer may want performance improvement from a supplier A buyer may want performance improvement from a supplier who otherwise would have little incentive to
180、do sowho otherwise would have little incentive to do soA shared savings contract provides the supplier with A shared savings contract provides the supplier with a fraction of the savings that result from the performance a fraction of the savings that result from the performance improvement such as l
181、ead time, qualityimprovement such as lead time, qualityParticularly effective where the benefit from improvement Particularly effective where the benefit from improvement accrues primarily to the buyer, but where the effort for the accrues primarily to the buyer, but where the effort for the improve
182、ment comes primarily from the supplierimprovement comes primarily from the supplierContracts to Induce Performance Contracts to Induce Performance ImprovementImprovement101頁碼頁碼作品作品授權條件授權條件作者作者/來源來源3本作品轉載自Microsoft Office 2007多媒體藝廊，依據Microsoft 服務合約及著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。4Benetton。本作品轉載自網站(http:/ )，瀏覽日期2
183、012/1/11。依據著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。(因網站商品隨時更新，故此頁面無永久性網址。)4Benetton。本作品轉載自網站(http:/www.benetton.jp/ )，瀏覽日期2012/1/11。依據著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。(因網站商品隨時更新，故此頁面無永久性網址。)5Benetton。本作品轉載自網站(http:/ )，瀏覽日期2012/1/11。依據著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。(因網站商品隨時更新，故此頁面無永久性網址。)5Benetton。本作品轉載自網站(http:/ )，瀏覽日期2012/1/11。依據著作權法第46、52、65條合
184、理使用。(因網站商品隨時更新，故此頁面無永久性網址。)5, 6本作品轉載自Microsoft Office 2007多媒體藝廊，依據Microsoft 服務合約及著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。版權聲明版權聲明102頁碼頁碼作品作品授權條件授權條件作者作者/來源來源7本作品轉載自Microsoft Office 2007多媒體藝廊，依據Microsoft 服務合約及著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。7本作品轉載自Microsoft Office 2007多媒體藝廊，依據Microsoft 服務合約及著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。7zara。本作品轉載自網站(http:/ )，
185、瀏覽日期2012/1/11。依據著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。(因網站商品隨時更新，故此頁面無永久性網址。)17本作品轉載自Microsoft Office 2007多媒體藝廊，依據Microsoft 服務合約及著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。17本作品轉載自Microsoft Office 2007多媒體藝廊，依據Microsoft 服務合約及著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。17本作品轉載自Microsoft Office 2007多媒體藝廊，依據Microsoft 服務合約及著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。17本作品轉載自Microsoft Office 2007多媒體藝廊，依據Microsoft 服務合約及著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。版權聲明版權聲明103頁碼頁碼作品作品授權條件授權條件作者作者/來源來源17本作品轉載自C網站(http:/ ，瀏覽日期2012/2/20。依據著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。23臺灣大學 郭瑞祥老師23本作品轉載自C網站(http:/ Wire網站(http:/
