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1、Varieties of EnglishAmerican EnglishOfficiallanguagestatusofstatesandterritories.1.DarkBlue:Englishisofficiallanguage2.Brown:Twoormoreofficiallanguages3.Blue:Noofficiallanguage;Englishisde factolanguage4.Pink:Noofficiallanguage;multiplede factolanguagesAmerican English(variouslyabbreviatedAmE,AE,AmE
2、ng,USEng,en-US,alsoknownasUnited States English,orU.S. English)isasetofdialectsoftheEnglishlanguageusedmostlyintheUnitedStates.ApproximatelytwothirdsofnativespeakersofEnglishliveintheUnitedStates.EnglishisthemostcommonlanguageintheUnitedStates.ThoughtheU.S.federalgovernmenthasnoofficiallanguage,Engl
3、ishisconsideredthede facto,inpracticebutnotnecessarilyordainedbylaw,languageoftheUnitedStatesbecauseofitswidespreaduse.Englishhasbeengivenofficialstatusby30ofthe50stategovernments.TheuseofEnglishintheUnitedStateswasinheritedfromBritishcolonization.ThefirstwaveofEnglish-speakingsettlersarrivedinNorth
4、Americainthe17thcentury.Duringthattime,therewerealsospeakersinNorthAmericaofSpanish,French,Dutch,German,Norwegian,Swedish,Scots,Welsh,Irish,ScottishGaelic,Finnish,Russian(Alaska)andnumerousNativeAmericanlanguages.British EnglishBritish English,orUK EnglishorEnglishEnglish(BrE,BE,en-GB),isthebroadter
5、musedtodistinguishtheformsoftheEnglishlanguageusedintheUnitedKingdomfromformsusedelsewhere.TheOxford English DictionaryappliesthetermtoEnglishusedinthewholeoftheBritishIsles,butinGreatBritain,reservingHiberno-EnglishforTheEnglishlanguageasspokenandwritteninIreland.Thereareslightregionalvariationsinf
6、ormalwrittenEnglishintheUnitedKingdom(forexample,althoughthewordsweeandlittleareinterchangeableinsomecontexts,oneismorelikelytoseeweewrittenbysomeonefromnorthernBritainorfromNorthernIrelandthanbysomeonefromSouthernEnglandorWales).Nevertheless,thereisameaningfuldegreeofuniformityinwrittenEnglishwithi
7、ntheUnitedKingdom,andthiscouldbedescribedasBritishEnglish.TheformsofspokenEnglish,however,varyconsiderablymorethaninmostotherareasoftheworldwhereEnglishisspoken,andauniformconceptofBritishEnglishisthereforemoredifficulttoapplytothespokenlanguage.AccordingtoTomMcArthurintheOxford Guide to World Engli
8、sh,formanypeople.especiallyinEngland,thephraseBritish Englishistautologous,anditsharesalltheambiguitiesandtensionsinthewordBritish,andasaresultcanbeusedandinterpretedintwoways,morebroadlyormorenarrowly,withinarangeofblurringandambiguity. Canadian EnglishCanadian English(CanE,en-CA)isthevarietyofEngl
9、ishusedinCanada.Morethan26millionCanadians(85%ofthepopulation)havesomeknowledgeofEnglish(2006census).Approximately17millionspeakEnglishastheirnativelanguage.OutsideQuebec,76%ofCanadiansspeakEnglishnatively.CanadianEnglishcontainselementsofBritishEnglishinitsvocabulary,aswellasseveraldistinctiveCanad
10、ianisms.Inmanyareas,speechisinfluencedbyFrench,andtherearenotablelocalvariations.However,CanadahasverylittledialectdiversitycomparedtotheUnitedStates.Thephonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,andlexiconformostofCanadaaresimilartothatoftheWesternandMidlandregionsoftheUnitedStates,whilethephonologicals
11、ystemofwesternCanadianEnglishisidenticaltothatofthePacificNorthwestoftheUnitedStates,andthephoneticsaresimilar.Assuch,CanadianEnglishandAmericanEnglisharesometimesgroupedtogetherasNorthAmericanEnglish.CanadianEnglishspellingislargelyablendofBritishandAmericanconventions. Australian EnglishAustralian
12、 English(AusE,AuE,AusEng,en-AU)istheformoftheEnglishlanguagespokeninAustralia.AustralianEnglishbegandivergingfromBritishEnglishshortlyafterthefoundationoftheAustralianpenalcolonyofNewSouthWalesin1788.Britishconvictssentthere,(includingCockneysfromLondon),camemostlyfromlargeEnglishcities.Theywerejoin
13、edbyfreesettlers,militarypersonnelandadministrators,oftenwiththeirfamilies.American vs British EnglishAmericanEnglishhasgrownsteadilyininternationalsignificancesinceWorldWarII,paralleltothegrowthofU.S.political,economic,technologicalandculturalinfluenceworldwide.AmericanEnglishiscurrentlythedominant
14、influenceonworldEnglish(cf.BritishEnglish)largelyduetothefollowing:Population:U.S.vsU.K.(70%vs17%ofallnativeEnglish;)WealthoftheU.S.economyvs.theU.K.,&influencesMagnitudeofhighereducationinAmericavstheU.K.MagnitudeofthepublishingindustryinAmericaMagnitudeofglobalmassmediaandmediatechnologyinfluenceA
15、ppealofAmericanpopularcultureonlanguageandhabitsInternationalpoliticalandeconomicpositionoftheU.S.I. Different Pronunciation, Although Same Spelling Advertisement(advert,ad)Controversy,Laboratory,SecretaryLeisure,schedule,dynasty,danceRenaissance,oregano,migratory,clerkbank,office,atePC-influenceexa
16、mples:harass&harassment,Uranus,etc.II. Different Spelling, Although Same PronunciationColourcolor,CentrecenterChequecheck(verbtocheckthesame)Defencedefense(nounform),Licence(nounform)licenseAlrightallright;Manoeuvremaneuver;tyretire;GaoljailAgeingaging;Whisky(Scotch)whiskey(U.S.&Ireland)III. Same Te
17、rm, Different. But Similar Spelling and PronunciationAluminiumaluminumPolythenepolyethyleneMathsmath(shorteningofmathematics)Riseraise(moremoneyinsalary,wages)IV. Same Words, But Different or Additional Meanings Imarriedahomelygirl.Weneededatorchforthedarktrail.(cf.flashlight,orGBelectrictorch,flami
18、ngtorch)IBMmadeoverabilliondollarslastyear.(cf.thousandmillion;changingGBstandards)GBTrousers=USPants;USPants=GBunderwearpantsGBJumper=USSweater;USJumper=GBPinaforedress.V. Grammar, Syntax, Punctuation, General Usage Grammar(U.S.)FinnairhasaflighttoLondontoday.(G.B.)FinnairhaveaflighttoLondontoday.(
19、largecollectivenouns)(U.S.)Englandhasplayedwelltoday,evenifitlost.(G.B.)Englandhaveplayedwelltoday,eveniftheylost.(G.B.)TheGovernmentareactinglikethemselvesagain.(G.B.)Haveyougotyourgradeinhistoryyet?(U.S.)Haveyougottenyourgradeinhistoryyet?(G.B.)Hewentonacourse.Howmanywereonthecourse?(U.S.)Hewasina
20、course.Howmanywereinthecourse?(G.B.)WelivedintheHighStreet.(cfstreetpeople.)(U.S.)WelivedonMainStreet(onplusarticleplusHigh/Main)(G.B.)Hesinhospitalwithabrokenleg.(U.S.)Hesinthehospitalwithabrokenleg.(G.B.)Ihavegotacar.vs.(U.S.)Ihaveacar.Igotacar.(G.B.)Wewerentabletocatchhimup(U.S.)Wewerentabletocat
21、chhim,catchupwithhim,catchupwithhim.VI. Divergence and OverlapTopostvstomailaletteranartgalleryvsanartmuseumAutumnvsfalltapvsfaucet,luggagevsbaggage,shopvsstore,etc.VII. Same Concept, Different Terms or Expressions; (or)Same Word, Differences in Style, Connotation and FrequencyHireacarrentacar(hire-
22、purchasevsinstallmentplan)Petrolgasoline;Saloonsedan,EstatecarstationwagonBoottrunk(storagearea);silencermuffler(toreduceexhaustnoise);Fortnighttwoweeks;GoodstrainfreighttrainBarristervs.solicitorlawyer,attorney-at-lawSweet(vssweets)dessert;redwhortleberrieslingonberriesVIII. Inventiveness; Combinat
23、ions; Allusions to Brand NamesHamburgercheeseburger,beefburger,fishburger,lobsterburger.Hotel,motel,floatel,boatelHardware,software,firmware,shareware,freeware,vaporware;treeware.Suburb,exurb,technoburb,cyburbcitizen,netizenMetrosexual,retrosexual,bersexual,metronatural,etc.,vsjetrosexualSmoke/fog=s
24、mog;tolitter/tobug=litterbugCosmetics/pharmaceuticals=cosmeceuticals,pharmaceuticals/farming=pharming;Sexploitation,cityscape,zeroscaping(xeriscaping;xericplants)IX. Euphemistic References Seniorcitizen,emeritusprofessor(cf.PClanguagebelow)Securityofficer,hairstylist,householdmanagerPowderroom,ladie
25、slounge;motiondiscomfortbagX. Equality VocabularyFiremanfirefighter,PolicemanpoliceofficerMailmanmailcarrier,SalesmansalespersonManmadeartificial,synthetic,manufacturedMaidhousecleaner.StewardessflightattendantChairmanchairperson,Chair,presidingofficer Australian English vs British EnglishBarbie (BB
26、Q) barbecuebathers word used in South Australia to refer to a swimming garmentbattler someone who works hard but stills only just makes a livingbikie motorcyclist, usually a member of a motorcycle gangbloke a manbludger someone who lives off the labour of othersbooze alcoholbush countrysidebushrange
27、r an outlawBYO “bring your own (usually means “bring your own alcohol)galahfoolgiveitaburltryit,havetogogrizzlegutssomeonewhocomplainsgdaygooddayorhellogoodonyawelldone,generaltermofapprovalgrogalcohol,beerheapsalothoonahooliganroadtrainaverybigtruckwithseveraltrailersrockuptoturnup,toarriverookanga
28、roorooted,exhaustedorbroken,ruinedropeableveryangryrubbish(verb)tocriticisetallpoppysomeonewhoissuccessfulteasometimesusedtorefertotheeveningmealteeuptosetupanappointmenttomatosauceketchupTopEndthefarnorthofAustraliawaggingschoolnotattendingschoolwhingetocomplainwoopwoopanameforanysmallunimportantto
29、wnalongwayawaywussacoward,nervouspersonYankanAmericanYobbouneducatedpersonWritten English and spoken EnglishSpoken EnglishistheEnglishwhichisoralandwhichyouusetocommunicatewithothersinreallifesituation.WrittenEnglishisthelanguagewhichisnotoralandwhichisusedtocommunicatewithothersinamoreorlessaformal
30、situation.Written Englishiscalledthemostneglectedoftheskills(CINDERELLA).SpokenEnglishisthecalledasthemostdifficultoftheskillswhichrequirestheproperaccent,tone,style,andtheproperbodylanguages.TheDIFFERENCESAREASFOLLOWS:1-ThereceiverispresentinspokenEnglish(SE)butabsentinwrittenEnglish(WE)2-Youcanget
31、environmentalcluesin(SE)butnotinWE.3-YoucangetinfoaboutbodylanguageandmovementinSEbutnotinWE.4-ThemistakesinSEisneglectedoroverseenbutinWEmistakesaremorevisibleandhencemorecorrectedwhichaccountsfortheneedformoreaccuracyinWE.5-SEisfluencybasedwhileWEisaccuracybased.6-InSEthewordislostwhileinWEtheword
32、ispresentinfrontoftheeyes.7-InSEthescriptisabsentandcannotberevised,inWEthescriptispresentandcanberevised.8-Thedifferenceinstyle(formalandinformal)isimportantinbothlanguage.9-TheneedforthecorrecttoneandaccentandbodysignsisnecessaryinSEbutcanbeneglectedinWE.10-ThenoiseisanimportantbarrierinSEbutnotin
33、WE.11-SEisspontaneouswhileWEisscripted.12-InSEyoudonthavemuchtimewhileinWEyoucanreviseandthinkyourthoughtsbefore.Spoken and Written EnglishTheEnglishofspeechtendstobedifferentfromtheEnglishofwritingsomefairlyobviousways.Forinstance:Wehavetimetoplanourmessageinwriting,butthatisnotpossiblewhileusingth
34、espokenformofEnglish.Weoftenusewordslike“Well,“Youseeetcinspeech.Butinwritingwetendtoavoidthese.Thesekindofwordsandphrasesaddlittlefacts,buttellussomethingabouttheattitudeofthespeakertowardsthecontextandaudience.WeoftenuseHesitatefillers,i.e.somespeechformslikeum/,err/whilewethinkofwhatnexttosay.Mor
35、eoverinspokenform,wemayfailtocompletethesentenceandmixuponegrammaticalconstructionwithanother.Thesedonotoccurinwriting.Inspokenformasentencehasalessstrictconstructionthanthesentenceinawritingform.Itisalsodifficulttodivideaspokenconversationintoseparatesentencesandtherelationshipsbetweenoneclausetoan
36、otherislessclearinthiscaseasthespeakerreliesmoreonhearersunderstandingofthecontext.Thespeakeralsodependsupontheabilityofthelistenertointerpretifhefailstoprovidetheexactsoundrepresentationtohisexpression.Moreoverthespeakerisabletorelyonfeaturesofintonationwhichtellusagreatdeal,whichcantbegiveninwritt
37、enpunctuation.Even,asfarasthesoundorthephoneticaspectoftheanalysisisconcerned,therearesomeimportantpointtonotewhichmakesspokenformsomewhatspecial.Thoughthesoundsystemofourspokenlanguageservesusprimarilyasamediumofcommunication,itsefficiencyassuchaninstrumentofcommunicationdoesnotdependupontheperfect
38、productionandreceptionofeverysingleelementofspeech.Thespeakerwill,inalmostanyutterance,providethelistenerwithfarmorecuesthanheneedsforeasycomprehension.Thesituationorthecontextofwhichboththespeakerandthelistenerareawareof,limitthepurportofanutterance.A.C.Gimson,inhisbookAnIntroductiontoPronunciation
39、inEnglishgivesanexampleasfollows:Thus,inanydiscussionaboutazoo,involvingastatementsuchasWesawthelionsandthetigers,wearepredisposedbythecontexttounderstandlions,evenifthenisomittedandthewordactuallysaidisliars.oragain,weareconditionedbygrammaticalprobabilities,sothataparticularsoundmaylosemuchofitssi
40、gnificance,e.g.inthephraseThemenareworking,thequalityofthevowelinmenisnotasvitallyimportantfordecidingwhetheritisaquestionofmenorman.asitwouldbeifthewordweresaidinisolation,sinceherepluralityisdeterminedinadditionbythedemonstrativeadjectiveprecedingmenandtheverbformfollowing.Thiskindofappropriationo
41、fsoundiscalledredundancy.IsthereanydifferencebetweenwrittenandspokenEnglishgrammar?Notofficially.French,forinstance,usedtohavedifferentwrittenandspokenverbforms;Englishhasnothinglikethis.However,inpracticetherearesomekeydifferences;notsomuchbetweenwrittenandspoken,asbetweenformalandinformalwriting.I
42、nspokenEnglish,wenearlyalwaysusecontractionsorshortformslikeIdordont.Wealsowritethesewhenformalityisntimportant-inafriendlyemail,say-butaformaldocumentsuchasareportorasolicitorslettershouldusefullforms:Iwould,donot.Spoken/informalEnglishalsotendstoleaveoutnon-essentialwordslikesubjects(iftheyreclear
43、fromthecontext)andauxiliaryverbs.Likeadrinkafterwork?isnormalspeechand/orinformalwriting,butinformalcorrectwritingyouwouldusethefullformWouldyoulike.?However,themajordifferenceisnotofgrammarbutofvocabulary;formallanguageoftenusesdifferentwordsaltogether.English Social Differences1.SocialDifferencesi
44、nEnglishLife2.PsychologicalAspectsofEnglishSocialStratification3.WaysofSpeaking,Manners,EtiquetteandGoodwill.4.CulturalandSocialDifferences5.Snobs6.TheClasses:Upper,Middle,Working7.ClothesandFashion8.EatingandDrinking9.TheTrainingofCharacterinSomeEnglishSchools.10.SocialDifferencesinEnglishEducation
45、11.SocialDifferencesinLeisurePursuits12.SocialStratificationandtheEnglishIdentifying Features of American Black EnglishTherearetwomajormisconceptionsaboutAmericanBlackEnglish.ThefirstisthatBlackEnglishisentirelyuniqueamongdialectsofAmericanEnglish.ThesecondisthattherearetwomajordialectsofAmericanEng
46、lish,thatspokenbyWhitesandthatusedbyBlacks.Neitheroftheseviewsisacceptedbyscholars,butbothhavewidegeneralacceptance.Butthequestionisthusraised,whatexactlyisBlackEnglish?Black English as a Social DialectBlackEnglishisasocialdialectcharacteristicofAmericanblacks,oftencuttingacrossregionaldifferences.W
47、henagroupwithinasocietyundergoessomeformofsocialisolation,thensocialdialectdifferencesbecomemoremarked.MarkersinthiscaseincludethediscriminationandsegregationexperiencedhistoricallybyAmericanblacks.Black English in Social SituationsTheBlackEnglishspeechcommunityismarkedbymanysituationsandcommunicati
48、veeventswhichmaybedescribedasin-groupassociations.Inotherwords,usingBlackEnglishinthesesituationsandeventsisaformofidentificationwithonesblacknessasapartofblackAmerica.Itmayalsobedescribedasatypeofcode-switchingbetweenidentityasastandardAmerican(regardlessofraceorethnicgroup)whospeaksstandardEnglish
49、,andablackAmericanwhoisabletospeakBlackEnglishasanaspectofblackidentity.SucheventsarereflectionsofblackAmericansocialstructure.Theyarelearnedbychildrenwholistentoandobserveadultsandotherchildren,practicetheseeventsamongthemselves,andthusgraduallybecomecompetentlanguageusersbytheircommunitysstandards.
