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1、CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementChapter 2Managing Across CultureslChapter 2(1) _ Global Culture2lChapter 2(2) _ Multicultural Teams11lChapter 2(3) _ Motivation in a Global Context36lChapter 2(4) _ Decision Making51lChapter 2(5) _ Leadership68lChapter 2(6) _ Global HRM921CrossCultural
2、 ManagementCrossCultural ManagementChapter 2(1) _Global Culture2CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementCULTURAL MESSAGES COME FROM MULTIPLE SOURCESDomesticInternationalGlobalalthough most common challenges are addressed by nations, a global civil society is emerging3CrossCultural Management
3、CrossCultural ManagementPEOPLE LOOK AT ALTERNATIVE ENTITIES FOR CULTURAL DIRECTIONAffiliative groups e.g., ethnic groupsNongovernmental organizations, e.g., the Womens League for Peace and FreedomReligious groupsRegional associations, e.g., Economic UnionBusiness organizations4CrossCultural Manageme
4、ntCrossCultural ManagementMultiple messages and sources create CONFUSION AND UNCERTAINTYLeading to new questions national cultures are less well able to answerbutIn a global society, we dont have a sense of the appropriate rules by which all can live 5CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural Management
5、TRANSITION TIME?Are we at a point where nationality is less important to culture than in the past?All of Us6CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementWE SEE THAT SOME VALUES ARE COVERGING, OTHERS ARE NOTThe Planet ProjectThe Roper Poll of ValuesThe World Values SurveyThe GLOBE Project7CrossCul
6、tural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementGLOBE RESPONSES ON GENDER EGALITARIANISM SHOWS COVERGENCE ON “SHOULD BE”8CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementGLOBE RESPONSES ON HUMANEORIENTATION ALSO SHOWS COVERGENCE ON “SHOULD BE”9CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementQUESTIONS OF GLOB
7、AL AND LOCAL CULTURESWill global culture replace or exist with local cultures?Will global culture bring positive or negative outcomes?10CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementChapter 2(2) Multicultural Teams11CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementTwo or more interacting individual
8、s who come together to achieve some objectives.Groups can be either formal or informal, and further subclassified into command, task, interest, or friendship categories.Group12CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementA specific type of group where an emphasis is put on some level of member in
9、terdependence and on achievement of common goalsTeamAll teams are groups Some groups are just people assembled togetherTeams have task interdependence whereas some groups do not (e.g., group of employees enjoying lunch together)13CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementReasons for Team Popul
10、arityOutperformOutperform individuals on tasks requiring multiple skills, judgment, and experienceBetter utilizationutilization of employee talentsMore flexibleflexible and responsiveresponsive to changing eventsFacilitate employee participationparticipation in operating decisionsEffective in democr
11、atizingdemocratizing the organization and increasing employee involvement and motivationmotivation14CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementBasic Group ConceptsAcceptable Standards Acceptable Standards of Behavior Sharedof Behavior Sharedby the Members by the Members of a Groupof a GroupExpe
12、cted Patterns ofExpected Patterns ofBehavior Based on aBehavior Based on aGiven Position in aGiven Position in aSocial UnitSocial UnitGroup RolesGroup Norms15CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementCohesivenessSocialOriented Cohesiveness: The degree to which members of the group are attracte
13、d to each other and motivated to stay in the groupTaskOriented Cohesiveness: The degree to which group members work together, cooperate and coordinate their activity in order to achieve group goals16CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementTeam Effectiveness ModelTask characteristicsTeam size
14、Team compositionTeam DesignTeam Design AchieveAchieve organizational organizational goals goals Satisfy member Satisfy member needs needs Maintain team Maintain team survival survivalTeamTeamEffectivenessEffectiveness Team developmentTeam development Team normsTeam norms Team rolesTeam roles Team co
15、hesivenessTeam cohesivenessTeam ProcessesTeam ProcessesOrganizational andOrganizational andTeam EnvironmentTeam Environment Reward systemsReward systems Communication Communication systems systems Physical space Physical space Organizational Organizational environment environment Organizational Orga
16、nizational structure structure Organizational Organizational leadership leadership17CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementGroups Across CulturesTwo cultural dimensions are especially relevant:IndividualismCollectivismPower DistanceAlso Uncertainty Avoidance; e.g., potential for Role Confli
17、ct (esp. in multifunctional teams)18CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementThe Challenge in Shaping Team PlayersGreatest where.Greatest where.The national culture is highly individualisticindividualisticIntroduced into organizations that historicallyhistorically value individual achievement
18、Less demanding.Less demanding.Where employees have strong collectivistcollectivist values, such as Japan or MexicoIn new organizations that use teams as their initial forminitial form for structuring work19CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementCross-Cultural DifferencesCrosscultural differ
19、ences in intergroup processesCollectivistic culturesExpect little expression of conflict; favor suppressing conflictPrefer to personalize interaction; focus on people, despite what group they representGroup membership is an important part of identity and interaction20CrossCultural ManagementCrossCul
20、tural ManagementPower Distance and SDWTsNicholls et al. (1999) study of SDWT in Mexico:Why are teams failing in a highly collectivist culture such as Mexico?Major challenges in implementing SDWTsWorkers expect to exercise little control over work and not to be involved in decision makingExpect clear
21、 instructions from the top and are not highly motivated by opportunity to initiate and take larger responsibilityCan SDWT work in highPD cultures? How?21CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementInterpersonal RelationshipsIndividualists tend to have more friends, but with lesser intensity leve
22、l;Collectivists tend to have less friends, but with higher intensity level.Individualists are less suspicious towards outgroup members and easier to make initial contact;Collectivists have stronger bonds with ingroup members22CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementDifferential Group Process
23、esConformity: who is more conforming?Formal/regulated participation vs. spontaneousSocial loafing versus social strivingPreferences for group vs. individual rewardsEquality (you deserve what you get) vs. Equity (you get what you deserve) vs. Need based decisions (to all according to their needs)23Cr
24、ossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementConformityCrosscultural variations in tendency to accept group pressure for conformity to group normsJapanese encourage high conformity to norms of a group that has the persons primary loyaltyGerman students (in some experimental research) showed a lower
25、 tendency to conformModerate conformity among people in Hong Kong, Brazil, Lebanon, and the United States24CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementTeams Cultural CompositionCultural Diversity: the number of different cultures represented in the group;Cultural Norms: the orientations of the s
26、pecific cultures represented in the group toward group dynamics and processes; andRelative Cultural Distance: the extent to which group members are culturally different from each other25CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementSurface and Deep DiversityIn multicultural teams, diversity can be
27、 in the form of:Surfacelevel (blackAmerican; CaucasianAmerican; French and Vietnamese) and/orDeeplevel (Irish and English; Singaporean and Chinese; N. and S. Africans)26CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementDynamics of Team DiversityDiversitySurfaceDeepAffective ReactionsCohesionSatisfacti
28、onCommitmentTeam BehavioursCommunicationConflictCooperationLong-termConseq.PerformancePromotionTurnoverGroupDynamicsSocial ContextOrg. Context27CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementJackson, Joshi & Erhardt (2003)Surfacelevel diversity has more immediate impact and is influential in earlys
29、tage/newly formed teams while deeplevel becomes more important over time and its effects last longer.Diversity, in general, and cultural/ethnic diversity in particular, have mixed effects on team processes and performance;Less effect on simpler, motorbased tasks; more effect on complex, interdepende
30、nt teamwork28CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementEarley & Mosakowski (2000)Studied effects of heterogeneity in transnational teams using experimental and field settingsReasoned that the effects of national heterogeneity on team performance is nonlinear;Found that in the early stages, hom
31、ogenous teams (those with only one major national group identity) outperformed both moderately heterogeneous (groups with two different subgroup identities) and highly heterogeneous (no clear subgroup identities exist) teams.29CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementEarley & Mosakowski (2000
32、)In the longer term, highheterogeneous teams performance increased as they managed to create a hybridculture;Such hybrid culture was not created in moderately heterogeneous teams, whose performance was lower than both high and low heterogeneity teams.Team processes mediated the effects of heterogene
33、ity on team performance, such that:In homogenous groups, members perceived many similarities between themselves (remember SIT?); trust, shared mental models and open communication developed early on in the teams life30CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementEarley & Mosakowski (2000)In moder
34、ately heterogeneous teams, a dynamic of us vs. them prevailed, with the two subgroups sticking to themselves in times of conflict, resulting in little cross subgroup cooperation;In highly heterogeneous teams, as time passed, members go to know each other better and since there were no dominant subgr
35、oups, they were free to form a hybrid cultureunique to their team and overarching each members national identity.Implications for joint ventures and projects where two cultures (national or organizational) get together to try to create a cooperative structure31CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural M
36、anagementDiversity and TeamsOverall, diversity causes process lossesCan be beneficial if team overcomes these losses over timeDepends on organizational culture and topmanagement supportHighly heterogeneous and highly homogenous teams work better than midrange onesFault lines in teams lead to rivalry
37、 coalitions = decrease effectiveness32CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementConditions for EffectivenessMore EffectiveLess EffectiveTaskInnovativeRoutineStageDivergence (earlier)Convergence (later)ConditionsDifferences RecognizedDifferences IgnoreTask-based member selectionCulture-base mem
38、bers selectionPluralismEthnocentrismEqual PowerCultural DominanceSuperordinate goalsIndividual goalsExternal feedbackNo feedback/autonomy33CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementSome ImplicationsInvestment in diverse teams is more sensible for the longerterm, for complex tasks and when team
39、 members are (relatively) pluralisticMore careful task design is neededPositive feedback, early onPreparation and training, through conceptual and experiential approaches is recommendedStrive to create a third culture through superordinate goals and neutralization of differences34CrossCultural Manag
40、ementCrossCultural ManagementDiversity: Beyond the ObviousSeemingly culturally similar team members may have the hardest time to get along: need to take into account other variables besides culture (history, class)Idiosyncratic cultural variables, e.g., intellectual style (Russians vs. N. Americans)
41、Prior experience with different cultures plays important role (usually for the better)Virtual Teams: added complexity35CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementChapter 2(3)-Motivation in a Global Context36CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementThe Basic Motivation ProcessUnsatisfiedn
42、eedDrive toward goal tosatisfy needAttainment of goal(need satisfaction)Introduction to MotivationMotivationPsychological process through which unsatisfied wants or needs lead to drives that are aimed at goals or incentives37CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementIntroduction to MotivationN
43、eed TheoriesCognitive theoriesExpectancy theory: describes internal processes of choice among different behaviorsEquity theory: describes how and why people react when they feel unfairly treated Goal setting theory: focuses on how to set goals for people to reachBehavioral theoryBehavior modificatio
44、n: focuses on observable behavior, not internal psychological processes 38CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementBasic Assumptions The Universalist AssumptionAll people are motivated to pursue goals they valueSpecific content of the goals that are pursued will be influenced by cultureMoveme
45、nt toward market economies may make motivation more similar in different countries39CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementMotivation TheoriesAre Culture BoundNeed forAchievementHierarchy of NeedsGoal-SettingTheory40CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementAttitudes and PersonalityPe
46、rsonality characteristicsPeople in individualistic cultures (United States) have stronger need for autonomy than people in grouporiented cultures (Japan)People in cultures that emphasize avoiding uncertainty (Belgium, Peru) have stronger need for security than people in cultures that are less concer
47、ned about avoiding uncertainty (Singapore, Ireland)41CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementNeed Theories of MotivationConcept of needs holds across culturesPeople from different cultures may express and satisfy needs differentlyImportance of needs in Maslows need hierarchyUnited States: se
48、lfactualizationLatin America: security, affiliationFrance and Germany: need for securityNew Zealand: belongingness and loveMcClelland: needs for affiliation, power and achievement42CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementInternational Aspects ofJob DesignHerzberg: Two Factor TheoryIndividual
49、 and groupbased job designU.S. managers have mostly used individual approaches to job designRecent shifts to groupbased approachesManagers in other industrialized countries have mainly emphasized groupbased job design43CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementJob Design (Cont.)Changing specif
50、ic job characteristicsBelgium, Mexico, Greece, Thailand: not likely to accept efforts to increase autonomy and task identityFrench managers particularly dislike recommendations to decentralize decision authority. Subordinates do not expect them to do soQuality circles: big success in Japan, but only
51、 partial in the US44CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementCognitive and Behavioral Theories of MotivationTwo assumptions that could restrict use of these theories outside the U.S.Individual controls decisions about future actionsManager can deliberately shape the behavior of people45CrossC
52、ultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementCognitive and Behavioral Theories of MotivationBoth assumptions reflect U.S. values of free will, individualism, individual controlCultural contrastsMuslim managers believe something happens mainly because God wills it to happenHong Kong Chinese believe luck
53、 plays a role in all events46CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementCognitive and Behavioral TheoriesExpectancy theorys validity in other culturesJapanese female life insurance sales representatives responded to commission system as expectedRussian textile workersLinked valued extrinsic rew
54、ards to worker performanceProductivity increased as the theory predictsGenerally, expectancy theory best explains motivation of people in cultures that emphasize internal attribution47CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementCognitive and Behavioral Theories (Cont.)Cognitive and Behavioral Th
55、eories (Cont.)Equity theory: complex crosscultural effectsReward allocation decisions followed equity theory premises in U.S., Russian, and Chinese samplesOther studiesChinese emphasized seniority in their reward decisions more than Americans.Eastern European transition economies: endorsed positive
56、inequity more than American students48CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementCulture & MotivationResearch on goal setting theory in several countriesResults consistent with U.S. work that formulated the theorySome cultural differencesU.S. students not affected by how goals were setIsraeli s
57、tudents performed better when goals were set participatively; consistent with culture of cooperation49CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementIdiosyncratic FactorsBeyond cultures variance along the major cultural value dimensions, there are specific aspects anchored in nations history and ex
58、pressed through its symbols and language.Ignoring such factors may render motivational techniques ineffective or even result in de-motivation; e.g.:Slay the Dragon! 50CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementChap 2(4)- Decision Making across Cultures51CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural Man
59、agementDecision MakingProcess of choosing a course of action among alternatives52CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementVarious Factors* Time OrientationDeciding for the short/long term?How long to make a decision?Polichronic or monochronic style?* Who decides: Groups vs. Individuals* Votin
60、g vs. Consensus based decisions* Process: Participative vs. Autocratic53CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementValue of RationalityStrong preference for rational D.M. vs.Occasional or low value on rationality; In some cultures more emphasis on:EmotionsReligionIdeology54CrossCultural Managem
61、entCrossCultural ManagementRational Decision MakingThe Rational Approach assumes thatManagers follow a systematic, stepbystep process.Organization is economically based and is managed by decision makers who are entirely objective and have complete information.It assumes that rational choices are:Con
62、sistentValuemaximizingWithin specified constraints55CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementThe Six-Step Rational Decision-Making Model1. Define the problem2. Identify decision criteria3. Weight the criteria4. Generate alternatives5. Rate each alternative on each criterion6. Compute the opti
63、mal decision56CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementCultural Contingencies in Decision MakingCultural Contingencies in Decision MakingStep1. Problem RecognitionProblem solving; change Situation acceptance2. Information SearchGathering factsGathering ideas and possibilities3. Construction o
64、f AlternativesNew, future oriented based on changePast/present/future based on stability4. ChoiceIndividual level; delegation of responsibility; fastGroup level; by senior management; slowly5. ImplementationSlow; topdownFast; broad participation57CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementCase
65、Study: The Road to Hell (p. 512)Case Study: The Road to Hell (p. 512)What mistakes did John Baker Made? Why did he not realize his mistake when it occurred?What would you recommend that Baker do now?What do you learn from this case about human resource management across different nations?58CrossCult
66、ural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementStages of Moral DevelopmentLevelLevelStage Stage DescriptionDescriptionPrincipledPrincipledConventionalConventionalPre-conventionalPre-conventional1. Sticking to rules to avoid physical punishment2. Following rules only when its in your immediate interest3. Liv
67、ing up to what is expected by people close to you4. Maintaining conventional order by fulfilling obligations to which you have agreed6. Following self-chosen ethical principles, even if they violate the law5. Valuing rights of others; upholding non-relative values and rights regardless of the majori
68、tys opinionAdapted from L. Kohlberg, “Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive-Developmental approach,” pages 34-55 inMoral Develop and Behavior: Theory, Research, and Social Issues, ed. T. Lickona (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1976).59CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementThree
69、 Different Criteria in Making Ethical ChoicesUtilitarian CriterionUtilitarian Criterion made solely on basis of outcomes or consequencesFocus on RightsFocus on Rights made consistently with fundamental liberties and privilegesFocus on JusticeFocus on Justice requires imposing and enforcing rules fai
70、rly and impartially for equitable distribution of benefits and costs60CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementEthical Aspects of DecisionsMultinational firms face many ethical questions and issuesOperate in many countries; subject to the laws of those countriesLegal and social context of glo
71、bally oriented organizations can present their managers with ethical dilemmas61CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementEthical Aspects of DecisionsCulturalrelativismEthicalrealismMultinationalorganizationTwo ethical views62CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementEthical Aspects of De
72、cisionsEthical views:Cultural relativismCultural relativism refers to differences in ethical values among different culturesPremise: right and wrong should be decided by each societys predominant ethical valuesCultural relativists base their argument on three points63CrossCultural ManagementCrossCul
73、tural ManagementEthical Aspects of DecisionsCultural relativism (cont.)Three pointsMoral judgments are statements of feelings and opinions; neither wrong nor rightMoral judgments are based on local ethical systems; cannot judge right or wrong across culturesPrudent approach: do not claim an action i
74、s either right or wrong64CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementEthical Aspects of DecisionsCultural relativism (cont.)Managers should behave according to local ethical systems, even if behavior violates home country ethical systemMany philosophers reject cultural relativisms argument that
75、codes of ethics cannot cross national boundariesAgree that countries vary in defining right and wrong65CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementEthical Aspects of DecisionsEthical realismMorality does not apply to international transactionsBecause no power rules over international events, peo
76、ple will not behave morallyBecause others will not behave morally, one is not morally required to behave ethically66CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementEthical Aspects of DecisionsInternational ethical dilemmasGoods made in a country with no child labor lawsGoods made in a country with c
77、hild labor laws that are not enforcedChanging the behavior of local peopleMaking small payments that are allowed under the companys national law67CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementChapter 2(5)Leadership68CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementDefinitionsThere are almost as man
78、y definitions of leadership as there are theoriessome of the more common ones are:Ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals. The process whereby one individual influences other group members towards the attainment of defined group or organisational goals.The process of creating vi
79、sion for others and having the power to translate it into a reality and sustain it.69CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementFoundation for LeadershipLeadership Behaviors and StylesParticipative LeadershipAuthoritarian LeadershipPaternalistic LeadershipThe use of workcentered behavior design
80、ed to ensure task accomplishment.The use of workcentered behavior coupled with a protective employee centered concern.The use of both work or taskcentered and people centered approaches to leading subordinates.70CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementLeaderSubordinate InteractionsAuthoritar
81、ian LeaderSubordinateSubordinateSubordinateOneway downward flow of information and influence from authoritarian leader to subordinates.71CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementLeaderSubordinate InteractionsPaternalistic LeaderSubordinateSubordinateSubordinateContinual interaction and exchan
82、ge of information and influence between leader and subordinates.72CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementLeaderSubordinate InteractionsParticipative LeaderSubordinateSubordinateSubordinateContinual interaction and exchange of information and influence between leader and subordinates.73Cross
83、Cultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementContingency TheoriesLeaders use various leadership Leaders use various leadership styles/behaviours;styles/behaviours;Quality of leadership experience depends on Quality of leadership experience depends on several situational factors, including followers se
84、veral situational factors, including followers and task type.and task type.PathGoal ModelPathGoal Model Leader assists followers in attaining goals and ensures goals are compatible with overall objectives74CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementPath-Goal TheoryA theory of leadership suggest
85、ing that subordinates will be motivated by a leader only to the extent they perceive this individual as helping them to attain valued goals.75CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementPath-Goal TheoryvFour basic leadership styles:InstrumentalInstrumental (directive): An approach focused on pro
86、viding specific guidance and establishing work schedules and rules.Supportive:Supportive: A style focused on establishing good relations with subordinates and satisfying their needs.Participative:Participative: A pattern in which the leader consults with subordinates, permitting them to participate
87、in decisions.Achievement Oriented:Achievement Oriented: An approach in which the leader sets challenging goals and seeks improvements in performance.76CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementPath-Goal TheoryEnvironmental contingency factorsTask structureFormal authority systemWork groupLeade
88、r behaviorDirectiveSupportiveParticipativeAchievement orientedOutcomesPerformanceSatisfactionSubordinate contingency factorsLocus of controlExperiencePerceived ability77CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementLeadershipCore values of countrys culture often define type of leadership behavior
89、that is acceptableIn high PD, an emphasis on hierarchical relationshipsdirective approaches accepted; Hong Kong, Latin American countries; RussiaIn low PD, hierarchical relationships are not valued supportive (or participative) approaches accepted; Austria, Scandinavia, Israel78CrossCultural Managem
90、entCrossCultural ManagementLeadershipIndividualismCollectivismLeader as a paternal figure vs. leader as an expertDegree to which intervention of leader in followers private lives is expected and acceptedMasculine/FeminineAcceptance of women as leadersAccepted style for leadersLongTermOrientationElec
91、t leaders for four yearsor forty?Leaders style: first among equals (China) or class of its own (Arab Countries)79CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementGLOBE ProjectMulticountry study and evaluation of cultural attributes and leadership behaviorAre transformational characteristics of leader
92、ship universally endorsed?170 country coinvestigators65 different cultures17,500 middle managers800 organizations80CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementGLOBE ProjectWhich traits are universally viewed as impediments to leadership effectiveness?Based on beliefs thatCertain attributes that
93、distinguish one culture from others can be used to predict the most suitable, effective and acceptable organizational and leader practices within that cultureSocietal culture has direct impact on organizational cultureLeader acceptance stems from tying leader attributes and behaviors to subordinate
94、norms81CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementVariableHighestMediumLowestRankingRankingRankingGLOBE Cultural Variable ResultsAssertivenessSpain, U.S.Egypt, IrelandSweden, New ZealandFuture orientationDenmark, CanadaSlovenia, Egypt Russia, ArgentinaGender differentiationSouth Korea, Italy, B
95、razilSweden Denmark EgyptUncertainty avoidance Austria, DenmarkIsrael, U.S.Russia, HungaryPower distanceRussia, SpainEngland, France Demark, NetherlandsCollectivism/SocietalDenmark, Hong Kong, U.S. Greece, HungarySingaporeIn-group collectivismEgypt, ChinaEngland, France Denmark, NetherlandsPerforman
96、ce orientation U.S., TaiwanSweden, IsraelRussia, ArgentinaHumane orientationIndonesia, Egypt Hong Kong, Germany, Spain Sweden82CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementUniversal Leadership Attributes PositiveTrustworthyJustHonestCharisma Inspiration & VisionTeam-OrientationExcellence-Oriented
97、DecisiveIntelligentNegativeLonerNonCooperativeRuthlessNonexplicitIrritableDictatorial83CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementLeadership and ManagementNeed to bear in mind that leadership style is very much situation dependent: for example, in some situations (e.g., emergency) and in some o
98、rganizational cultures, directive style will be accepted even in a country like the US;Participation is more likely if the basis of power is more achievement based (instrumental) than if it is ascribed (personal) andDegree of participation in decision making and leadership by subordinates vary cross
99、nationally84CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementLeadership in theInternational ContextAttitudes of European Managers Toward Leadership PracticesCapacity for Leadership and InitiativeEuropean managers tend to use a participative approach. Researchers investigated four areas relevant to le
100、adership.Does the leader believe that employees prefer to be directed and have little ambition? (Theory X) OR Does the leader believe that characteristics such as initiative can be acquired by most people regardless of their inborn traits and abilities? (Theory Y)85CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultu
101、ral ManagementLeadership in the International ContextAttitudes of European Managers Toward Leadership PracticesCapacity for Leadership and InitiativeSharing Informationand ObjectivesDoes the leader believe that detailed, complete instructions should be given to subordinates and that subordinates nee
102、d only this information to do their jobs?ORDoes the leader believe that general directions are sufficient and that subordinates can use their initiative in working out the details?Most evidence indicates European managers tend to use a participative approach. Researchers investigated four areas rele
103、vant to leadership.86CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementLeadership in the International ContextAttitudes of European Managers Toward Leadership PracticesCapacity for Leadership and InitiativeSharing Informationand ObjectivesParticipationDoes the leader support participative leadership p
104、ractices?Most evidence indicates European managers tend to use a participative approach. Researchers investigated four areas relevant to leadership.87CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementLeadership in the International ContextAttitudes of European Managers Toward Leadership PracticesCapac
105、ity for Leadership and InitiativeSharing Informationand ObjectivesParticipationInternal ControlDoes the leader believe that the most effective way to control employees is through rewards and punishment?ORDoes the leader believe that employees respond best to internally generated control?Most evidenc
106、e indicates European managers tend to use a participative approach. Researchers investigated four areas relevant to leadership.88CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementJapanese vs. U.S. Leadership StylesDimensionJapanUSEmploymentOften for lifeOften short-termEvaluationSlow, takes many years
107、Fast: those not promoted often leaveCareer PathsVery general; based on rotationsv. specialised; people stay in one areaDec. MakingGroup basedBy individual managersControl Mech.Implicit & informal; reliance on trust and goodwillExplicit; based on knowing the control mechanismsResponsibilityShared col
108、lectivelyAssigned individuallyConcern for employeesBroad and covers the whole lifelimited to work-life89CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementDifferences in Middle Eastern and Western Management90CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementDifferences in Middle Eastern and Western Mana
109、gement91CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementLeadership-Other IssuesEmphasis on Emotional Intelligence is especially important for leading cross-culturallyIdiosyncratic effects & paradoxes:Moderately masculine Muslim and Hindu nations with traditional views on womenbut,Israel, India, Paki
110、stan and other exceptionsCharismatic leadership is not universally accepted92CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementChapter 2(6)-GLOBAL HUMAN RESOURCES93CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementHR Challenges of International Business DeploymentKnowledge and innovation disseminationId
111、entifying and developing talent globally Researchers asked “What are the key global pressures affecting human resource management practices in your firm currently and for the projected future?” Responses were:94CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementGlobal StaffingGlobal Staffing Pressures
112、Pressures Candidate selectionsAssignment termsRelocationImmigration Culture and languageCompensationTax administrationHandling spouse and dependent matters 95CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementEconomic DifferencesTranslate into differences in HR practices:Espousing ideals of free enterp
113、rise Wage costs vary Other labor costs vary: severance pay; holidays 96CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementInternational Labor RelationsUnion membership varies widely worldwide14%29%44%39%80%24%23%39%97CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementInternational Staffing Multinational c
114、orporations (MNCs) use several types of international managers:LocalsExpatriatesHomecountry nationalsThirdcountry nationals 98CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementSources of Human ResourcesHome Country NationalsExpatriate managers who are citizens of the country where the MNC is headquart
115、eredExpatriatesThose who live and work away from their home countryCitizens of the country where the MNC is headquarteredExpatriates are useful for:starting up operationsproviding technical expertisehelping the MNC maintain financial control over the operationExpatriates almost always were menSituat
116、ion is changingExpatriates typically used in top management positions99CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementSources of Human ResourcesHostCountry NationalsLocal managers who are hired by the MNCUsed in middle and lowerlevel management positionsNativizationRequirement of hostcountry govern
117、ment that mandates employment of hostcountry nationals100CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementSources of Human ResourcesThirdCountry Nationals (TCNs)Citizens of countries other than the one in which the MNC is headquartered or the one in which the managers are assigned to work by the MNCF
118、ound in MNCs that have progressed through the initial and middle stages of internationalization101CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementAdvantages of using TCNsRequire less compensationGood working knowledge of the regionGiven home office experience, often can achieve objectives better tha
119、n other types of managersOffer different perspectivesSources of Human Resources102CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementFailure Rates of International AssignmentsFailure Rates of International AssignmentsInternational assignment failure can cost hundreds of thousands of euros103CrossCultur
120、al ManagementCrossCultural ManagementWhy InternationalAssignments FailPersonalityPersons intentionsFamily pressuresLack of cultural skillsOther nonwork conditions like living and housing conditions, and health care104CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementImproving Failure Rates/SolutionsPr
121、ovide realistic previewsHave a careful screening processImprove orientationProvide good benefitsTest employees fairlyShorten assignment length105CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementImportant Predictors Important Predictors of Successof SuccessFamily situation tops the listFlexibility/ada
122、ptability screening was high on resultsUse paper and pencil tests like the Overseas Assignment InventoryPreviewing what changes an international assignee can expect106CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementSelectingSelectingInternational ManagersInternational ManagersTest for traits that pr
123、edict success in adapting to new environmentsJob knowledge and motivationRelational skillsFlexibility and adaptabilityExtracultural opennessFamily situation Predictive trait breakdown107CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementTraits Distinguishing Successful International ExecutivesSCALESens
124、itive to Cultural DifferencesBusiness KnowledgeCourage to Take a StandBrings Out the Best in PeopleActs with IntegrityIs InsightfulIs Committed to SuccessTakes RisksUses FeedbackIs Culturally AdventurousSeeks Opportunities to LearnIs Open to CriticismSeeks FeedbackIs Flexible*Reverse scoredSAMPLE IT
125、EMWhen working with people from other cultures, workshard to understand their perspectives.Has a solid understanding of our products and services.Is willing to take a stand on issues.Has a special talent for dealing with people.Can be depended on to tell the truth regardless of circumstances.Is good
126、 at identifying the most important part of a complex problem or issue.Clearly demonstrates commitment to seeing theorganization succeed.Takes personal as well as business risks.Has changed as a result of feedback.Enjoys the challenge of working in countries other thanhis/her own.Takes advantage of o
127、pportunities to do new things.Appears brittleas if criticism might cause him/her to break.*Pursues feedback even when others are reluctant to give in.Doesnt get so invested in things that she/he cannot change when something doesnt work.108CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementPerformance A
128、ppraisal of International MangersFive suggestions for improving the expatriate appraisal process:1. Stipulate the assignments difficulty level. For example, being an expatriate manager in China is generally considered more difficult than working in England, and the appraisal should take such difficu
129、lty-level differences into account.2. Weight the evaluation more toward the on-site managers appraisal than toward the home-site managers distant perceptions of the employees performance.109CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementPerformance Appraisal of International Mangers3. If however (a
130、s is usually the case), the home-site manager does the actual written appraisal, have him or her use a former expatriate from the same overseas location to provide background advice during the appraisal process.4. Modify the normal performance criteria used for that particular position to fit the ov
131、erseas position and characteristics of that particular locale.5. Attempt to give the expatriate manager credit for his or her insights into the functioning of the operation and specifically the interdependencies of the domestic and foreign operations.110CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural Manageme
132、ntThe New Workplace:Sending Women AbroadIn the US, only 6% filled overseas positions compared to 49% domesticOne survey found inaccurate stereotypes:Not as internationally mobile Might have a tougher time building teams 111CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementPerformance Appraisal of Inte
133、rnational MangersFive suggestions for improving the expatriate appraisal process:1. Stipulate the assignments difficulty level. For example, being an expatriate manager in China is generally considered more difficult than working in England, and the appraisal should take such difficulty-level differ
134、ences into account.2. Weight the evaluation more toward the on-site managers appraisal than toward the home-site managers distant perceptions of the employees performance.112CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementPerformance Appraisal of International Mangers3. If however (as is usually the
135、 case), the home-site manager does the actual written appraisal, have him or her use a former expatriate from the same overseas location to provide background advice during the appraisal process.4. Modify the normal performance criteria used for that particular position to fit the overseas position
136、and characteristics of that particular locale.5. Attempt to give the expatriate manager credit for his or her insights into the functioning of the operation and specifically the interdependencies of the domestic and foreign operations.113CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementCulture Shock!
137、Disorientation upon entering a new cultural environmentNormal use of own cultural filter failsinterpretation of perceptionscommunication of intentionsAll people experience culture shock. Past experience and training can shorten its length114CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementCulture Sho
138、ck:ResponsesGone native (assimilation): accepts the new. rejects ownParticipator (integration): adapts to the new . but retains ownTourist (separation): avoids the new. Outcast (marginalization): wont/cant adapt. rejects own.115CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementPhasesHoneymooneuphoria,
139、 unrealistically positive attitudes towards host country, stay in hotel shields from mundane difficulties, house hunting/school hunting exciting, sightseeing!Irritation and Hostility (the crisis stage)problems adjusting at work, local clocks dont fit yours, difficulties getting the routine daily tas
140、ks done, everything stinks; some never recover116CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementSymptomshomesicknessboredomwithdrawal (reading is an obsession, focus on home nationals, avoid host nationals)excessive sleep need, compulsive eating and drinking irritabilityexaggerated cleanliness117Cr
141、ossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementSymptoms (cont.)marital stress, family tension, conflictstereotyping host nationalshostility towards host nationalsloss of ability to work effectivelyfits of weepingpsychosomatic illnesses118CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementPhasesGradual A
142、djustmentcan manage, cope with situation nowBiculturalism/Copingability to function in both cultures, acceptance of local customs and values for what they are (not going native), possible to get by, positive and growth gaining experience119CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementNature of Cu
143、lture ShockNot a jolt, rather a series of cumulative experiencesCultural differences become focus of attentionForeign ways are quaint no more. they seem inferior to your own120CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementWhat Special Training Do Overseas What Special Training Do Overseas Candidat
144、es Need?Candidates Need? Impact of cultural differencesUnderstanding attitude formation Factual knowledge about target countryLanguage and adjustment/adaptability skills 121CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementFour Step Approach to Training Overseas Four Step Approach to Training Overseas
145、 CandidatesCandidatessLevel 1 training focuses on the impact of cultural differences, and on raising trainees awareness of such differences and their impact on business outcomes.sLevel 2 training aims at getting participants to understand how attitudes (both negative and positive) are formed and how
146、 they influence behavior.sLevel 3 training provides factual knowledge about the target country.sLevel 4 training provides skill building in areas like language and adjustment and adaptation skills.122CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementCross-Cultural TrainingCross-Cultural TrainingInform
147、ation GivingAffective ApproachImmersion ApproachGeographic briefingsCultural BriefingsFilms/BooksInterpretersLanguage: “Survival”Culture assimilator trainingRole-playingCasesStress reduction trainingCultural BriefingsLanguage: “Moderate”AssessmentField experienceSimulationsSensitivity trainingLangua
148、ge: “intensive”Training TimeTraining RigorLength of AssignmentYearsMonthsWeeksHighLowMonthsWeeksDay(s)123CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementRepatriation of ExpatriatesRepatriationReturn to ones home country from an overseas management assignmentReasons for returningFormally agreedon tou
149、r of duty is overExpats want their children educated in the home countryUnhappiness with foreign assignmentFailure to perform well Readjustment problemsPermanent position upon return constitutes a demotionLack opportunity to use skills learned abroad upon returnSalary and benefits may decrease upon
150、return124CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementRepatriation Problems Leaving the firm prematurelyMediocre or makeshift jobsFinding former colleagues promotedReverse culture shock125CrossCultural ManagementCrossCultural ManagementRepatriationSeveral steps can be taken to avoid repatriation problems:sWrite repatriation agreementssShorten Assignment periodssAssign a sponsorsProvide career counselingsKeep communications opensOffer financial supportsDevelop reorientation programssBuild in return trips126
