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1、Los Angeles L.A.IdentificationHistoryby潘一创潘一创PopulationTransportby卢世康卢世康UrbanFormFamousbuildingsby王盼盼王盼盼IdentificationLosAngeles,whichisSpanishforTheAngels,isthe2ndmostpopulouscityintheU.S.andithasthe14thlargesturbanareaintheworld.洛杉矶洛杉矶,这是西班牙的天使这是西班牙的天使,是第是第二最多的城市在美国和它有二最多的城市在美国和它有14世界上世界上最大的城市。最大的
2、城市。LosAngelesislocatedintheSouthWesternpartoftheUnitedStates,inCalifornia,onthePacificcoast.洛杉矶位于美国西部南部洛杉矶位于美国西部南部,在加州在加州,在在太平洋海岸太平洋海岸HistoryLosAngeleshistoryfromancienttimesthroughtheLosAngelesMexicanhistoryandwar,throughthehistoryoftheGoldRushanditseffectonLosAngeles.洛杉矶的历史从古代到洛杉矶的历史从古代到洛杉矶墨西哥历史和战
3、争洛杉矶墨西哥历史和战争,通过淘金热的历史和它对洛杉矶的影响。通过淘金热的历史和它对洛杉矶的影响。Andthe1920shistoryofLosAngeles,theRoaringTwenties,andthearrivaloftheMovieIndustry,AviationandthepopulationboomhistoryoftheCityofLosAngeles.ThehistoryofLosAngelestakesusbackabout10,000yearsago,whenpre-historicMammoths,SaberToothTigersandrareCamelsroame
4、dthelandwenowcallLosAngeles.和和1920年代的历史洛杉矶年代的历史洛杉矶,爵士乐时代爵士乐时代,和电影工业的到来和电影工业的到来,航空航空和人口激增洛杉矶这座城市的历史。洛杉矶的历史带我们回大和人口激增洛杉矶这座城市的历史。洛杉矶的历史带我们回大约约10000年前年前,当史前猛犸象当史前猛犸象,军刀牙老虎和罕见的骆驼在土地我军刀牙老虎和罕见的骆驼在土地我们现在所称的洛杉矶。们现在所称的洛杉矶。MammothsAtTheLaBreaTarPitsInLosAngelesTheLosAngelesRiverInThe1920sTheearliesthistoryofLo
5、sAngelestellsofancientNativeAmericansettlers,mostlytheChumashandtheYang-NatribeslivingalongtheLosAngelesriver,whichisavitalhistoryoftheLosAngelesriver.TheIndiantribesmadedaytripstoLaBrea,whichisthewordfortarinSpanish,tocollectstickytarusedfortheirhabitatsandbuildings.洛杉矶的最早历史讲述了古代印第安人移民洛杉矶的最早历史讲述了古代
6、印第安人移民,大多大多Chumash和和Yang-Na部落住洛杉矶河沿岸部落住洛杉矶河沿岸,它是一个至它是一个至关重要的洛杉矶河的历史。天去拉布雷亚的印第安部落关重要的洛杉矶河的历史。天去拉布雷亚的印第安部落,这是焦油在西班牙语中这是焦油在西班牙语中,这个词收集粘性沥青用于它们的这个词收集粘性沥青用于它们的栖息地和建筑物。栖息地和建筑物。Itwasntuntil1542thatthePortuguesenavigatorJuanRodriguezCabrillo,undertheSpanishcrown,firstidentifiedtheareaforEuropesmapmakers.But
7、thenSpaindidnotpayanyattentiontotheLosAngelesareaforanother200years.WhentheSpaniardsbecameworriedaboutRussiaandBritain,theychristenedtheriverneartheYang-NaIndianVillageforNuestraSenora,LaReinadeLosAngeles,inEnglishittranslatestoOurLady,QueenofTheAngels.Thetown,PuebloofLosAngeles,wasofficiallyestabli
8、shedin1781.直到直到1542年年,葡萄牙航海家胡安葡萄牙航海家胡安罗德里格斯罗德里格斯Cabrillo根根据西班牙王室据西班牙王室,首次发现该地区为欧洲的地图制造商。但首次发现该地区为欧洲的地图制造商。但随后西班牙没有注意另一个随后西班牙没有注意另一个200年的洛杉矶地区。年的洛杉矶地区。当西班牙人成为担心俄罗斯和英国当西班牙人成为担心俄罗斯和英国,他们命名为当时印度他们命名为当时印度Yang-Na村附近的河流村附近的河流,La雷纳雷纳de洛杉矶洛杉矶,在英语中在英语中,它意它意味着我们的夫人味着我们的夫人,皇后的天使。洛杉矶皇后的天使。洛杉矶,普韦布洛普韦布洛,于于1781年正式成
9、立。年正式成立。MoreLosAngelesHistoryLosAngelesMexicanAmericanHistoryIn1822,MexicowonitsindependencefromSpain,andAltaCaliforniabecamepartofMexico.Atthattime,theSpanishMissionsinCaliforniachangedfromreligoustociviluse,andtheirvastlandandlivestockholdingsweregiveninhugegrantstoprominentMexicanfamilies,creatin
10、ghugeRancheros.AftertheMexican-AmericanWar,MexicocededCaliforniatotheUnitedStatesin1848.1822年年,墨西哥从西班牙独立墨西哥从西班牙独立,赢得和上加利福尼亚赢得和上加利福尼亚成为墨西哥的一部分。当时成为墨西哥的一部分。当时,西班牙在加州任务改变西班牙在加州任务改变从严厉到民用从严厉到民用,和他们持有大量土地和牲畜有巨大的和他们持有大量土地和牲畜有巨大的赠款著名的墨西哥家庭赠款著名的墨西哥家庭,创造巨大的住处。创造巨大的住处。美墨战争后美墨战争后,1848年墨西哥把加州割让给美国。年墨西哥把加州割让给美国。
11、Los Angeles And The Gold Rush HistoryTheLosAngeleshistorywasgreatlyaffectedbytheGreatGoldRush,洛杉矶的历史是极大地影响了伟大的淘金热洛杉矶的历史是极大地影响了伟大的淘金热,whichbroughthundredsofthousandsoffortuneseekerstotheterritory.TheranchersandgrowersofLosAngelesspeculatedandprosperedwhileshippinghighpricedcattleandfarmcropsnorthtoth
12、efrenziedminers,knownasthe49erstothefirstfullyearofthegoldrushthatstartedin1849.Californiabecameastatein1850attheheightofthegoldrush.Asgoldbecamescarcerandthe49ersstoppedcoming,thetranscontinentalrailroadwasopened,onMay101869,unitingCaliforniaandLosAngeleswiththerestofUnitedStates.ThesleepyLosAngele
13、sbasin,withitsidealclimate,becameasourceforcitrusfruit,bananasandothercommoditiesforthecitieseastoftheRockyMountains.LosAngelesInThe1920sBy1920,thehistoryoftheCensusshowedthattheCityofLosAngeleshadsurpassedSanFrancisco,到到1920年年,人口普查的历史显示人口普查的历史显示,洛杉矶已经超过了旧金山洛杉矶已经超过了旧金山,肿胀肿胀500000居民居民swellingto500,00
14、0residents.TheRoaringTwentieswereatimeofexplosivegrowth.OilwasdiscoveredallaroundLosAngeles.ARCO,Unocal,andStandardOilopenedupheadquartersinLosAngeles.AttistimetheMotionPictureIndustrydiscoveredLosAngelesandbeganleavingNewYorkCityforHollywood.Banking,financeandinsurancecompaniesstartedtolocateinLosA
15、ngelesthrivingdowntownfinancialdistrict.TheveryfirstneonsigninthecountrywasilluminatednearLabreaAvenueinLosAngeles,creatinganewlookforthecity(andthenation).HollywoodBoulevardLosAngelesTheCarlestondancecrazedrewsuchlargecrowdstolatenightLosAngelesdancemarathons,sotheeventswerebannedbytheLosAngelesCit
16、yCouncilin1928asapublichealthhazard.WatersupliesintheSierraNevadamountainswerepurchasedbytheCityofLosAngelesandpumpedhundredsofmilesthroughnetworksofaquaductstosupplythehugedemandfornewhomes.By1930,thecityspopulationhadmorethandoubledagainto1.23millionresidents.In1932,LosAngelesbecameaWorldclasscity
17、,whenithostedtheOlympicGamesatthespeciallybuiltLosAngelesColiseum.HowardHughesDuringthe1930s,40sand50s,asWorldWarunfolded,giantAviationcomapaniesbecamethelargestemployersledbytheenterpreneurfoundersHowardHughes,DonaldDouglas,MalcombLongheadandJohnNorthrup.TheportofLosAngeles,anditsnextdoorneighborci
18、tyLongBeach,becameoneofthebusiestshippingharborsintheWorld.1930年代年代,40年代和年代和50年代年代,世界大战爆发世界大战爆发,巨人巨人航空航空comapanies成为最大的雇主企业家领导的创始人霍华德成为最大的雇主企业家领导的创始人霍华德休斯休斯,唐纳德唐纳德道格拉斯道格拉斯Malcomb长头和约翰长头和约翰贝蒂。贝蒂。洛杉矶港洛杉矶港,隔壁邻居城市长滩隔壁邻居城市长滩,成为世界上最繁忙的海运港口。成为世界上最繁忙的海运港口。PopulationLosAngeleshasgrownmorethananymajormetropol
19、itanregioninthehighincomeworldexceptforTokyosincethebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,andalsosince1950.In1900,thecity(municipality,seeNote)ofLosAngeleshadlittleover100,000peopleandranked36thinpopulationinthenationbehindAllegheny,1900年年,市市(直辖市直辖市,见注见注)的洛杉矶人口超过的洛杉矶人口超过100000人人,排排名第名第36在阿勒格尼背后的国家在阿勒格尼背后的国
20、家Pennsylvania(whichhassincemergedwithPittsburgh)andSt.JosephMissouri(whichhassincelostmorethanonequarterofitspopulation).AspeoplemovedWestintheinterveningdecadesandespeciallyafterWorldWarII,theLosAngelesareaexplodedinpopulation.By1960,theLosAngelesmetropolitanarea,whichwasthenandisnowcomposedofLosAn
21、gelesandOrangecounties,hadpassedChicagotobecomesecondinpopulationonlytotheNewYorkmetropolitanarea.ItwastotakeconsiderablylongerforthecityofLosAngelestopassthecityofChicagoasthenationssecondlargestmunicipality,thoughthisoccurredbythe1990census.Table 1Los Angeles Combined Statistical Area: Population
22、(CSA): 1900-2010YearCityofLosAngelesBalance:LACountyLosAngelesCountyOrangeCountyRiversideCountySanBernardinoCountyVenturaCountyTotal1900102,47967,819170,29819,69617,89727,92914,367250,1871910319,198184,933504,13134,43634,69656,70618,347648,3161920576,673359,782936,45561,37550,29773,40128,7241,150,25
23、219301,238,048970,4442,208,492118,67481,024133,90054,9762,597,06619401,504,2771,281,3662,785,643130,760105,524161,10869,6853,252,72019501,970,3582,181,3294,151,687216,224170,046281,642114,6474,934,24619602,479,0153,559,7566,038,771703,925306,191503,591199,1387,751,61619702,816,0614,216,0147,032,0751
24、,420,386459,074684,072376,4309,972,03719802,966,8504,510,6537,477,5031,932,709663,166895,016529,17411,497,56819903,485,3985,377,7668,863,1642,410,5561,170,4131,418,380669,01614,531,52920003,694,8205,824,5189,519,3382,846,2891,545,3871,709,434753,19716,373,64520103,792,6216,025,9849,818,6053,010,2322
25、,189,6412,035,210823,31817,877,006ConsolidatedstatisticalareaasdefinedbyOMBasof2010Growthfrom1900:TheCSAhadonly250,000peoplein1900,thoughgrewtonearly5,000,000in1950.By2010,thepopulationwasnearing18million,afigurenotmuchlessthanthatofAustralia,at22million(Table1).Indeeduntil1990theLosAngelesCSApopula
26、tionwasclosinginonAustralia.However,sincethattimepopulationgrowthintheLosAngelesareahasslowedconsiderablyandAustraliashouldremainlargerThecityofLosAngeleshadgrown88percentfrom1950to2000,butoverthepastdecadeaddedonlythreepercenttoitspopulation.Evenmorespectaculardeclinesingrowthoccurredintherestofthe
27、CSA.Forexample,OrangeCountyhadgrown1200percentbetween1950and2000yetgrewonlysixpercentinthelastdecade.洛杉矶这座城市从洛杉矶这座城市从1950年年到到2000年增长了年增长了88%,但在过去的十年里增加了人口只有百分之三。下降更显著但在过去的十年里增加了人口只有百分之三。下降更显著增长发生在增长发生在CSA的其余部分。例如的其余部分。例如,奥兰治县还在奥兰治县还在1950年到年到2000年之间增长了年之间增长了1200%在过去十年里仅增长了百分之六。在过去十年里仅增长了百分之六。Growth:2
28、000to2010:ThepopulationgrowthintheLosAngelesCSAwaswidelydispersedandawayfromthecore.Thecentralarea(urbancore)ofthecityLosAngelesextendsfromtheSantaMonicaMountainstoSouthLosAngelesandfromtheboundariesofBeverlyHills,WestHollywoodandCulverCitytoEastLosAngelesgrewonly0.7percent.Uniquely,thecentralareade
29、nsifiedstronglybetween1960and2000,whileotherurbancoresnearlyalldeclinedinpopulation,whetherintheUnitedStatesorWesternEurope.MuchofthiswasduetostrongimmigrationfromMexico,otherpartsofLatinAmerica,aswellasAsia.Theinnersuburbanring,whichincludesthebalanceofLosAngelesCountysouthoftheSantaSusanaandSanGab
30、rielMountainsaswellastheoldernorthwesternOrangeCountysuburbsgrewby1.5percent.Withinthisarea,32innersuburbs(allinLosAngelesCounty)grewfrom1.766millionto1.767million(0.1percent)from2000to2010(Note2).Theoutersuburbs,whichincludethebalanceofOrangeCounty(includingtheMissionViejourbanarea)andthewesternpor
31、tionsofRiversideandSanBernardinocounties(includingtheRiversideSanBernardinourbanarea)grew19percent.MoreremoteareasofthedesertextendingtotheNevadaandArizonabordersadded42percenttotheirpopulation(Figure1and2).Theexurbanareas,whichincludeareasoutsidethecoreurbanareasofLosAngeles,Riverside-SanBernardino
32、andMissionViejogrew30percent.ThehotspotsincludedVenturaCounty,theSantaClaritaValley,theAntelopeValley,theVictorville-Hesperiaarea,theCoachellaValley(Indio-PalmSprings),theHemetareaandtheTemecula-Murrietaarea.AnargumentcouldbemadethatTemecula-MurrietawouldbeintheSanDiegometropolitanareaifmetropolitan
33、areasweredefinedbysmallerareaunits,suchasmunicipalities(asinCanada)orcensustracts.Theexurbanareasaremoreattractivetoresidentsatleastinpartbecauseofconsiderablylessexpensivehousingandtheirgreateravailabilityofdetachedhousesthaninthethreecoreurbanareas.Thedispersionofpopulationwasalsoevidentinthecityo
34、fLosAngeles.Fordecades,thecityofLosAngeleshasgrownstrongly.Approximatelyone-quarterofthisgrowthsince1960hasbeenthedensifyingcentralarea,asnotedabove.However,littlenotedisthefactthatmostofthecitysgrowthwasgreenfieldsuburbaninnature,builtatlowandmoderatedensitiesandlargelycar-oriented.Formostofthepast
35、fiftyyearsthegrowthhasbeen“overthehill”intheSanFernandoValley,aformerlyruralareawhichwasannexedbythecitybefore1930.Between1950and2010,thepopulationoftheSanFernandoValleygrewfrom300,000to1,400,000.Thus,theValleygrewlikevirtuallyeveryfast-growinghistoricalcorecityinthenationthathasgrownsince1950,byfil
36、lingupemptyland(Figure3).CityofLosAngeles:TheFuture:GrowthorStagnation?Aftermorethanacenturyofspectaculargrowth,LosAngelesdemographicjuggernautisstagnatingandcouldconceivablygoinreverseduetodecliningimmigration,anexodusofmiddleclassandworkingclassfamilies.IndeedEventhestronggrowthintheoutersuburbsan
37、dexurbswasnotsufficienttodragtheregionalpopulationincrease(9percent)uptothenationalrateof10percentbetween2000and2010.Theimmediateprognosisshouldbeforevenslowergrowth.Thefinancial,regulatoryandcostoflivingdisadvantagesofCaliforniaarewidelyrecognizedbyhouseholdsandbusinessesalike.Withstrongerregulatio
38、nsintheoffing,suchasthestrongerlanduserestrictionslikelytooccurasaresultofSenateBill375,anyfuturegrowthontheperipherycouldbedampened.Evenwithmulti-billionsupportintermsoftaxbreaksandpublicinvestment,thecentralcoreseemsunlikelytocomeclosetomakingmuchofarealdifference,atleastbeyondthemedia.LosAngelesm
39、aynotbeontheroadtoRustBeltstagnation,butthedynamismofthelastcenturyisnomore.TransportPublictransportationwithinLosAngelesisthelargestmodeoftransportationwithinthecity.PeoplewithinLosAngelesrelyonthebussystems,railandsubwaysystem.Itisthebussystemthatismostlargelyusedbytheinhabitants.Itisthesecondbusi
40、estinthecountry,hostingnearlyoneandahalfmilliondailyridersonit.ItsbusroutesarenolessextensivethanthoseofotherlargercitiessuchasNewYorkCity,NewYork.Thesubwaysystemisalsonotexactlylackinginparticipatingcommuters,beingtheninth-busiestintheUnitedStates.Itsrailsystemiscurrentlythethird-busiest.LosAngeles
41、iscenterofthecommuterrailsystemMetrolink,whichistheconnectionbetweenLosAngelesandsomeofthenearbysuburbsandcounties.公共交通在洛杉矶最大的运输方式在城市。人公共交通在洛杉矶最大的运输方式在城市。人们在洛杉矶依靠总线系统、铁路和地铁系统。这是公交们在洛杉矶依靠总线系统、铁路和地铁系统。这是公交系统最主要使用的居民。它是美国第二大繁忙的国家系统最主要使用的居民。它是美国第二大繁忙的国家,举举办近一个半每天百万乘客。其广泛的公交线路不低于其办近一个半每天百万乘客。其广泛的公交线路不低于其
42、他大城市如纽约他大城市如纽约,纽约。地铁系统也不是完全缺乏参与的纽约。地铁系统也不是完全缺乏参与的上班族上班族,在美国的运量。其目前以外最繁忙的铁路系统。在美国的运量。其目前以外最繁忙的铁路系统。洛杉矶洛杉矶Metrolink通勤铁路系统的中心通勤铁路系统的中心,是连接洛杉矶和是连接洛杉矶和一些附近的郊区、县。一些附近的郊区、县。JustastheEiffeltowercomestomindasthesymbolofParis,andtheStatueofLibertysymbolizesNewYork,theinternationallyrecognizedsymbomofLosAngele
43、sisthefreeway.LosAngelesisknowntheworldoverastheprototypecityofthelatetwentiethcenturybybothitscriticsanddetractors,anditsveryessenceistobefoundinitstransportsystemaswellasitsfarflungmixoflowandmoderatedensitycommunitiesconnectedbythousandsofmilesofhighcapacityfreeways.Itisobviousthattransportsystem
44、shavebeenacentralobjectofpolicymakersthroughouttheevolutionofLosAngeles.Theyremaintodayamongthemostimportantobjectsofpolicymakingandpoliticalcontroversy,andarelikelytobeequallycriticalindeterminingthefutureofthemetropolitanarea. 一样埃菲尔铁塔是巴黎的象征,自由女神像象征着纽约,洛杉矶的国际公认的symbom是高速公路。洛杉矶闻名世界的原型城市二十世纪后期批评者和批评者
45、,及其本质是在其运输系统以及它的遥远低和中等密度社区通过数千英里的大容量高速公路连接。很明显,运输系统被政策制定者的一个核心对象在“洛杉矶的进化。他们今天仍然是最重要的决策和政治争议的对象,和可能会同样确定市区的未来的关键。 LosAngelesiswellknownaroundtheworldasanautomobile-orientedlowdensitycommunity,yetrecenttransportationpolicieshaveemphasizedgreatercapitalinvestmentinrailtransportationthaninhighways,andre
46、centpolicieshaveattemptedtodiscourageautomobileusagethroughtransportationdemandmanagement.洛杉矶是众所周知的世界各地作为洛杉矶是众所周知的世界各地作为automobile-oriented低密度低密度社区社区,然而最近的交通政策强调更大的资本投资铁路运输比公路然而最近的交通政策强调更大的资本投资铁路运输比公路,汽车使用量的和最近的政策试图阻止通过交通需求管理。汽车使用量的和最近的政策试图阻止通过交通需求管理。Whilethesepolicieshaveaccomplishedsmallshiftstowa
47、rdpublictransportandsomewhatlowerdependenceuponsinglyoccupiedautomobilesforworkcommuting,thefinancialcostsofthesepolicychangeshasbeenverylargeinrelationtotheirbenefits.Properpricingoftransportationalternatives,morecreativeuseofnewandemergingtransportationtechnologies,andtheprovisionofmanymoreopportu
48、nitiesforsimplerprivatesectortransportservices,wouldallappeartobemorepromisingascost-effectiveapproachestocopingwithcongestioninLosAngelesthanthecurrentregionaltransportationpolicies.虽然这些政策有所成就小向公共交通转移虽然这些政策有所成就小向公共交通转移,降降低依赖单独占领汽车上班通勤低依赖单独占领汽车上班通勤,这些政策变化的金融成本非常大的好这些政策变化的金融成本非常大的好处。运输选择适当的定价处。运输选择适当
49、的定价,更多的创造性使用新的和新兴的运输技术更多的创造性使用新的和新兴的运输技术,和提供更多的机会和提供更多的机会,更简单的私人部门的运输服务更简单的私人部门的运输服务,都似乎更有前途都似乎更有前途,有有成本效益的方法应对交通拥堵在洛杉矶比当前区域交通政策。成本效益的方法应对交通拥堵在洛杉矶比当前区域交通政策。LosAngelesisinthemidstofitsthirdmajortransportcrisisofthetwentiethcentury.Bythattmeanthatitisexperiencingthethirdperiodduringwhichtransportissue
50、shaverisentothetopoftheregionsagenda,withextremelyhighlevelsofpublicawarenessandconcern,andacontinuingsenseofurgencyamongregionalofficialsAnd,whilethecausesofthecurrenttrafficcrisisaresimilartothoseinthepast,therecentresponsesofpublicpolicymakershavedifferedfromthoseofthepastinthatcongestionisnowbei
51、ngaddressedbymeansotherthanmajorexpansionsinhighwaycapacity.Itremainstobeseenwhetherthecurrentapproachwillprovemereorlesssuccessfulthanthosepursuedinresponsetotheearliertransportationcrises.Thetwoprevioustransportationcriseswereprecipitatedbyratesofgrowthinpopulationandeconomicactivitywhichfarexceed
52、edtherateofgrowthinpublicinvestmentinhighwaycapacity,andthepoliciesadoptedtoaddresseachofthesecrisesinvolvedmajorcommitmentstohighwaycapacityexpansion.洛杉矶正处于它的第三个主要交通危机的二十世纪。洛杉矶正处于它的第三个主要交通危机的二十世纪。t的意思是的意思是,它正在它正在经历第三时期交通问题已经上升到顶部的地区的议程经历第三时期交通问题已经上升到顶部的地区的议程,水平极高的公众意识和关心水平极高的公众意识和关心,和持续的紧迫感地方官员和持续的
53、紧迫感地方官员,而当前的交通危机的原因是类似于过去而当前的交通危机的原因是类似于过去,公共政策制定者公共政策制定者的最近的反应不同于那些过去的拥堵正在解决通过高速公路的主要扩张能力。还有的最近的反应不同于那些过去的拥堵正在解决通过高速公路的主要扩张能力。还有待观察是否当前方法仅仅将证明或少比追求成功的早些时候在应对交通危机。前面待观察是否当前方法仅仅将证明或少比追求成功的早些时候在应对交通危机。前面的两个交通危机被沉淀率远远超过了人口的增长和经济活动的增长的速度在高速公的两个交通危机被沉淀率远远超过了人口的增长和经济活动的增长的速度在高速公路公共投资能力路公共投资能力,和采纳的政策来解决这些危
54、机涉及公路产能扩张的主要承诺和采纳的政策来解决这些危机涉及公路产能扩张的主要承诺TranspotationcrisesinLosAngelesThefirstofthesecrisescameinthenineteentwenties,whenrapidgrowthofautomobileownershipandaninadequateIocaistreetsystemledtoveryserioustrafficcongestion,andpressurefrombusinessesandpoliticianstodosomethingaboutit.In1924,aMajorStreeta
55、ndHighwayPlanwasadoptedbytheCityCouncil,andthevotersapprovedapropositiontotaxthemselvesforthepurposeofimplementingtheplan.Discontinuitiesinthestreetnetworkwereeliminated,broadboulevardsweremapped,andrealestatedeveloperswererequiredtocedetothecitythelandnecessarytoextendstreetsandboulevardsintonewlyd
56、evelopingareas.Atthesametime,votersandelectedofficialsrejectedseveratinitiativesfortheexpansionandimprovementoftheregionalrailnetwork,inpartbecausetheywerefedupwiththeserviceprovidedbytheprivatelyownedPacificElectricandLosAngelesRailwaysystems,andinpartbecausetheydidnotwishtopayhighertaxesandhigherf
57、arestosupportacrumblingtransitsystemjustastheywereacquiringautomobilesfortheveryfirsttime.ThesecondmajortrafficcrisisinLosAngelesoccurredafterWorldWaril,whensuburbanpopulationgrowthandhomebuildingresultedinincreasedtrafficvolumeswhichswampedthesurfacestreetsystemandagainraisedtrafficcongestiontothet
58、opofthepublicagenda.TheIhighwaynetworkwhichhadbeenplannedinthetwentieshadbeenonlypartiallyimplementedbecauseofthedepressionandthewar,andgrowthintransportationdemandfaroutstrippedtheexistingsystemscapacity.ThevigorousfreewayconstructionprogramoftheCaliforniaDivisionofHighwaysrespondedtothesecondtraff
59、iccrisis,andhundredsofmilesofgradeseparatedfreewayswereaddedtothehighwaynetworkofSouthernCaliforniabetweentheendofthewarandtheearlyseventies,withthepeakoffreewayconstructionoccurringintheearlysixties.Majorrailtransitinitiativesweredefeatedasadecentralizingpopulationsawlittlevalueintheconstructionofs
60、ubwaystobenefitprimarilythecentralcitybusinesscommunityEarlierTrpnsoortationCriseSincetheearlyseventies,therateoftrafficgrowthhasagainexceededtherateofpopulationgrowth.Whilethespurtofgrowthintrafficinthetwentieswasattributabletotheinitialacquisitionofautomobilesbyarapidlygrowingpopulation,andthespur
61、tofgrowthinthefiftieswasfueledbypentupdemandforautomobilesandsuburbangrowthwhichhadbeenartificiallydepressedbytwodecadesofdepressionandwar,growthoftrafficintheseventiesandeightieshadsomewhatdifferentsources.Automobileownershiphasrecentlyswelledtothepointthatthereisnowmorethanoneregisteredvehicleperl
62、icenseddriverinLosAngelesCounty.Asalargeproportionofwomenhaveenteredtheworkforceandhouseholdincomeshaverisen,percapitadriving-especiallyinthepeakcongestionperiodshasgrownatamuchfasterratethanhighwaycapacity.年代初以来年代初以来,交通的增长速率再次超过了人口的增长。虽然交通在二十年代的成长归交通的增长速率再次超过了人口的增长。虽然交通在二十年代的成长归功于最初收购汽车快速增长的人口功于最初收
63、购汽车快速增长的人口,和成长在五十年代被禁锢的需求推动了汽车和郊和成长在五十年代被禁锢的需求推动了汽车和郊区的增长区的增长,人为压低了二十年的萧条和战争人为压低了二十年的萧条和战争,七八十年代增长的交通有不同的来源。七八十年代增长的交通有不同的来源。汽车所有权最近膨胀汽车所有权最近膨胀,现在有一个以上的每个许可注册车辆司机在洛杉矶县。大部分现在有一个以上的每个许可注册车辆司机在洛杉矶县。大部分女性已经进入了劳动力和家庭收入上升女性已经进入了劳动力和家庭收入上升,人均驾驶人均驾驶特别是在高峰期拥堵时间已经特别是在高峰期拥堵时间已经以更快的速度比公路容量以更快的速度比公路容量TheCurrentT
64、ransportationCrisisIncreasedmobilitybycitizensofLosAngelesisnotasocial,environmental,oreconomicproblem.indeed,peopleshouldhavetheopportunitytotravelmorethantheydonow,ratherthenless.Mobilitymeansaccesstoopportunitiesforemployment,healthcare,recreation,andsocialinteraction,andthegoaloftransportationpo
65、licyshouldcontinuetobetoincreasethoseopportunitiesratherthantorestrictthem(Webber,1992).Thechallengebeforeustofindwaysofincreasingmobilitywhileavoidingthenegativeconsequencesofdoingsointheformofcongestion,airpollution,andtheinefficientuseofenergy.Thecomplexityoftheurbanarea,ofindividualdecisionmakin
66、gaboutresidentialandworklocationandtravel,andofAmericanpolitics,makesitdifficulttoconceiveofasinglepolicyortechnologythatcanpromiseanimmediateincreaseinmobilitywhiledecreasingthenegativeimpactsofthetransportationsystem.ConclusionScholarlyperspectivesonsuburbanizationhaveviewedthedevelopmentofurbanfo
67、rmasaconsequenceoftransportationtechnology;asanisolatedmiddle-classretreat;orastheproductofanurbanbigbangwhichhascreatedaneverexpandingedgecityattheperipheryofmetropolitanuniverse.incontrasttothestereotypedsuburbansprawl,LosAngelesurbanformistheresultofaplanneddispersalofhousing,services,andjobs.Sub
68、urbanization,inotherwords,shouldbeseenasurbanization.学术观点郊区化认为城市形态的发展由于运输技术学术观点郊区化认为城市形态的发展由于运输技术;作为一个孤立的中作为一个孤立的中产阶级撤退产阶级撤退;或城市大爆炸的产品创造了一个不断扩大的或城市大爆炸的产品创造了一个不断扩大的“边缘城市边缘城市”宇宙外围的大都会。在刻板的郊区扩张相比宇宙外围的大都会。在刻板的郊区扩张相比,洛杉矶的城市形式分散住洛杉矶的城市形式分散住房计划的结果房计划的结果,服务服务,和工作。郊区化和工作。郊区化,换句话说换句话说,应被视为城市化。应被视为城市化。urbanfor
69、mLosAngeleshasahistoryindesignand,morefamously,LosAngeleshasabiggerhistorywithdesignthatneverwasorthatcouldhavebeenorthatwasmadeandthendestroyed.洛杉矶有在设计历史洛杉矶有在设计历史,更著名的洛杉矶有一个更大的历史与设更著名的洛杉矶有一个更大的历史与设计计,从不是或可能是或者并摧毁了。从不是或可能是或者并摧毁了。 DuringWorldWarII,immigration,locationofdefenseindustries,andcommunityp
70、lanningprincipleswouldcometogethertoproducetheincipienturbanformofpostwarLosAngeles.第二次世界大战期间第二次世界大战期间,移民移民,国防工国防工业的发展定位业的发展定位,社区规划原则将一起生产战后初期城市形式的洛杉矶社区规划原则将一起生产战后初期城市形式的洛杉矶Asizableproportionofdefenseworkerswereemployedbyaircraftandtheiralliedindustries.Thesefirmswerenotcentrallyplacedbutinsteadsurr
71、oundedthecentralcityinwhatFredViehecallssuburbanindustrialclusters.Federalagenciesencouraged,andhomebuildersresponded,establishingnewhousingdevelopmentsnearsuburbanemployment.Aircraftmanufacturinghadpioneeredtheeconomicfoundationonwhichpostwarcommunitybuilders-promotingtheownershipoflow-cost,mass-pr
72、oducedhomesincommunitiesthatreflectedtheprinciplesofmoderncommunityplanning-couldflourish.Withanintimateconnectionbetweenthelocationofjobsandhousing,LosAngeleswaspoisedforitspostwarexpansion.LosAngelesistheBiggestAnti-SprawlSuccessStoryintheUSLosAngelesischangingitsidentity.Itsmovingawayfromthecaran
73、dthesingle-familyhouseandtowardtransitanddenserliving.Andnowitsevengettingdramaticallylesssprawly.AccordingtoastudyfromSmartGrowthAmericathatfactoredindensity,landusemix,robustnessofactivitycenterslikedowntowns,andstreetaccessibility(lengthofblocks,etc.),theLAmetroareaisnowthetwenty-firstleastsprawl
74、yplaceintheUS,andtheseventhleastsprawlyamongmetropolitanareaswithmorethanonemillionresidents.(ThestudyalsoremindsusthatLAistheseconddensestplaceintheUSoverall,afterNewYork.)LosAngelessstaggeringurbandensity,coupledwithdenserhousingdevelopmentsandtheeffortstoimprovetransit,allhelpedmakeLAthebiggestsu
75、ccessstory,accordingtooneresearcherquotedinTheAtlanticCities.LosAngeleshasactuallydensifiedverysubstantially,saysthatresearcher,andthereportspecificallycallsouttheareaforitsanti-sprawlpolicies,includingapushforlightrailandtransit-orienteddevelopmentandgivingoutdensitybonuses,whichletdevelopersbuildm
76、oredenselyiftheyincludeaffordablehousing.Intheend,saysoneurbanplanner,thereducedsprawlistheresultofthedemandsandtastesofthepopulation,especiallyyoungprofessionalsandempty-nesters,astheLATimesputsit,whovaluewalkabilityandarewillingtopayforit.Sopeoplelikelivinginlesssprawlyplaces,ittursout,andthatofco
77、ursemeanstheyreexpensive:theplacesthatfaredbestonthesprawlindexwhichistoppedbyNewYorkandSanFranciscoalsotendtohavehighhousingcosts.http:/ parts of the City, but especially commercial corridors, are unattractive and lack open space, community facilities and visual and recreational amenities. Hollywoo
78、d Boulevards newly widened sidewalks, street trees, lights and furniture enhance its open space functionLeimert Park provides a focus for both shops and surrounding residencesMany residents oppose higher-intensity development on aesthetic grounds.Higher-density housing is often opposed because it is
79、 poorly designedThe concentration of new development in transit-served centers allows for the conservation of neighborhoodsHousing built at the same higher-density, however, can be attractiveMany residents do not identify with the City as a whole, but, instead, with their own neighborhoodL.A. is a c
80、ity of culturally diverse neighborhoodsExisting activity centers served by transitcan be reinforced (Broadway, Downtown Los Angeles)AscanbeseeninthehistoryofLosAngeles,thisisnotasustainablefuture.Retreatingintotheirsuburbancocoonsanddisassociatingthemselvesfromthemetropolis,theresidentsofLosAngelesarereluctanttoengageinthepursuitofacommonurbanlifeandenvisionapositive可可以看到历史上的洛杉矶以看到历史上的洛杉矶,这不是一个可持续的未来。这不是一个可持续的未来。撤退到他们从大都市郊区茧和撇清与其之间的关撤退到他们从大都市郊区茧和撇清与其之间的关系系,洛杉矶的居民不愿参与一个共同的追求城市生洛杉矶的居民不愿参与一个共同的追求城市生活和想象积极活和想象积极future.http:/
