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1、 MaterialsSelection&Evaluation(I)Contentsv1.Definitionsofmaterialsv2.Functionsofmaterialsv3.Featuresofgoodmaterialsv3.Advantages&disadvantagesofusingcoursebookv4.Selectionofmaterialsv5.Aframeworkforselectionofmaterialsv6.ReferenceDefinitionsvMaterialsincludesanythingwhichcanbeusedtofacilitatethelear
2、ningofalanguage.Theycanbelinguistics,visual,auditoryorkinaesthetic,andtheycanbepresentedinprint,throughliveperformanceordisplay,oroncassette,CD-ROM,DVDortheinternet(Tomlinson,2001:66).vTheycanbeinstructional,experiential,elicitativeorexploratory,inthattheycaninformlearnersaboutthelanguage,theycanpro
3、videexperienceofthelanguageinuse,theycanstimulateuseortheycanhelplearnerstomakediscoveriesaboutthelanguageforthemselves.DefinitionsTeachingmaterialsareakeycomponentinmostlanguageprograms.Instructionalmaterialsgenerallyservedasthebasisformuchofthelanguageinputlearnersreceived&languagepracticethatoccu
4、rsintheclassroom.Theymaytaketheformof(a)printedmaterialssuchasbooks,workbooks,worksheetsorreaders;(b)nonprintmaterialssuchascassetteoraudiomaterials,videos,orcomputer-basedmaterials;(c)materialsthatcomprisebothprint&nonprintsourcesuchasself-accessmaterials&materialsontheinternet.(Richard,2001:251)Fu
5、nctions/RolesvCoursebookshavemultiplerolesinELT&serveas:-asourceforpresentationmaterials(spoken&written)-asourceofactivitiesforlearnerspractice&communicativeinteraction-areferencesourceforlearnersongrammar,vocabulary,pronunciation,andsoon-asourceofstimulation&ideasforclassroomactivities-asyllabus(wh
6、eretheyreflectlearningobjectivesthathavealreadybeendetermined)-asupportforlessexperiencedteacherswhohaveyettogaininconfidence(Cunningsworth,1995,7)Theaimsofcoursebookshouldcorrespondascloselyaspossibletotheaimsofteachers,andbothshouldseektomeettheneedsofthelearnerstothehighestdegrees.ForteachersofES
7、Pcourse,materialsservethefollowingfunctions:-asasourceoflanguage-asalearningsupport-formotivation&stimulation-forreferenceESPmaterialsseektoprovideexposuretothespecializedgenres®istersofESP,tosupportlearningthroughstimulatingcognitiveprocesses&providingastructure&progressionforlearnerstofollow,to
8、motivatelearnersthroughprovidingachievablechallenges&interestingcontent,andtoprovidearesourceforself-studyoutsideoftheclassroom.Featuresofgoodmaterials1.MaterialsshouldachieveimpactvGoodmaterialsshouldattractthelearnerscuriosity,interestandattention.Ofcoursetheyshouldalsomakesurethelearningreallytak
9、esplacewhenthelearnersusethematerials.Itisnotnecessarilyenoughthatlearnersenjoythematerials.vMaterialscanachieveimpactthrough:v1)Novelty:beingnew2)Variety:differentactivities/tasks,differenttexts,differentvoices,etc.)v3)Attractivelayout:attractivecolors,photographs,spacev4)Appealingcontent:topicsofi
10、nteresttothetargetlearners;topicswhichofferthepossibilityoflearningsomethingnew;engagingstories;universalthemes;localreferencesv2.Materialsshouldhelplearnerstofeelatease:vLayoutofpresentation:lotsofwhitespacevThestudentsshouldbeabletorelatethetextsandillustrationstotheirownculturevThematerialstrytoh
11、elpthestudentslearnratherthantestthem3.Materialsshouldhelplearnerstodevelopconfidence4.Materialsshouldmeetlearnersneeds:vWhatiscoveredinthematerialsshouldberelevantandusefultothelearners.5.Materialsshouldrequireandfacilitatelearnerself-investment.6.Learnersmustbereadytoacquirethepointsbeingtaught.v7
12、.Materialsshouldexposethelearnerstolanguageinauthenticuse.8.Thelearnersattentionshouldbedrawntolinguisticfeaturesoftheinput.9.Materialsshouldprovidethelearnerswithopportunitiestousethetargetlanguagetoachievecommunicativepurposes10.Materialsshouldtakeintoaccountthatthepositiveeffectsofinstruction(tea
13、ching)areusuallydelayed.vv11.Materialsshouldtakeintoaccountthatlearnersdifferinlearningstyles:vActivitiesshouldbevariableandshouldcaterforalllearningstylessoalllearnerscanbenefit.Differentstylesoflearning:vVisualvAuditoryvKinaestheticvStudial:learnersliketopayconsciousattentiontothelinguisticfeature
14、softhelanguageandwantstobecorrect;vExperientialvAnalytic:discretebitsoflanguagevGlobal:wholechunksoflanguagevDependent,Independentvv12.Materialsshouldtakeintoaccountthatlearnersdifferinaffectivefactors:attitudesandmotivationvv13.Materialsshouldpermitasilentperiodatthebeginningofinstruction.vv14.Mate
15、rialsshouldmaximiselearningpotentialbyencouragingintellectual,aestheticandemotionalinvolvementwhichstimulatesbothrightandleftbrainactivities:vEnablethelearnerstoreceiveinformationthroughdifferentcerebralprocessesandindifferentstatesofconsciousnesssothatitisstoredinmanydifferentpartsofthebrain,maximi
16、singrecall.vAdvantagesofusingcoursebookv-Coursebooksfufilawiderangeofpracticalneeds,particularlyincontextwhereEnglishisbeingtaughtinanon-English-speakingenvironment&whereteacherseitherlacktrainingorsufficienttimetoanalyseeachgroupsneeds.v-Thecoursebbokhelpsprovidearoutemapforbothteachersandlearners,
17、makingitpossibleforthemtolookaheadtowhatwillbedoneinalessonaswellastolookbackonwhathasbeendone.v-Coursebooksprovidestructure&predictability,whichhelpgiveparticipantsinsocialinteractionlikelessonsasafebase,aplatformfornegotiation&exploration.v15.Materialsshouldnotrelytoomuchoncontrolledpracticevv16.M
18、aterialsshouldprovideopportunitiesforoutcomefeedback.vvv-Bydealingwithacertainamountofroutineworkforteachers,thecoursebookfreesthemtoattendtomoreimportantaspectoflessonplanning(includingmaterialsadaptation&supplementation),andtoconcentrateonusingtheircreativeskills.v-Coursebooksprovideteachers,parti
19、cularllythoselackingintraining&experience,withasenseofself-confidence&security.v-Mostcoursebooksaredesigned&developedbyexpertsinthefield,conversantwithcurrenttheoreticalapproachesandmethodologicalpractices.Thequalityofsophisticationintheirdesign,contentandorganizationwouldbedifficulttomatchwithhome-
20、grownmaterials.v-Coursebookscanactasagentsofchange,allowinginnovativeideastobeintroducedwithintheirstructuredframeworkinawaythatenablesteachers&learnerstodevelopinharmonywiththesenewideas.vJ.C.Richardalsosummarizedtheadvantages&disadvantagesofcoursebook(P254-255)vSelectionofmaterialsv-toidentifythea
21、ims&objectivesofyourteachingprogramv-toanalyzethelearning/teachingsituationinwhichthematerialwillbeused.Thiswillgiveyouaprofileofthecontextforwhichyouareselectingtheteachingmaterials&someoftherequirementsthatthematerialswillhavetomeet.v-drawupalistofpotentialcoursebooks,usinginformationfrompublisher
22、s,advicefromcolleagues&yourownpreviousexperience.Thesebooksshouldbesubjectedtoanimpressionisticevaluationtoeliminatethosethatareobviouslyunsuitable.Theresultingshortlistshouldconsistofbetweenthreetofivecoursebooksandthesewillbethesubjectofanin-depthevaluationprocessusingcriteriawhicharemostrelevantt
23、otheneedsoftheteachers&learnersconcerned.vInmostcircumstances,thecoursebookwhichmostvcloselyfittherequirementsandthecontextwillbethebestavailable,althoughotherfactors,suchasflexibilityandthepotentialforadaptation,willneedtobetakenintoconsideration.AframeworkforselectionofcoursebookvTraditionally,the
24、selectionofmaterialsinvolvestwostages:1)assessingthecontentofthebookinrelationtoitsprofessedaims.2)assessingtheeffectivenessofmaterialsintermsofthespecificneeds&contextoftheintendedlearnersaswellashowwelltheyservetheteaching-learningprocess.vThefollowingframeworkwillbasicallyaddressedtothesecondstag
25、eandconsistofthreebroadcategories,eachassessingthepotentialvalidityofthematerialsinrelationto:v1.thelearnersneeds,goals&pedagogicalrequirementsv2.theteachersskills,abilities,theoriesandbeliefs,andv3.thethinkingunderlyingthematerialswriterspresentationofthecontentandapproachtoteachingandlearningrespe
26、ctively.vRaniRubdy(2003:45)willtermPsychologicalValidity,PedagogicalValidityandProcessandContentValidity.vIntheverycenteroftheevaluationprocessarethethreemainelementsoftheclassroom:teacher,learnersandmaterialsandtheinteractionthattakeplacebetweenthem.vThesampleofcriteriarepresentingtheinnerconcentri
27、ccirclehastodowiththosefeaturesthatarefoundtoresideovertlyinthetexts,tasks,andactivitiesandisthereforeviewedaselementsthatare“tangibleoramenabletoastraightforwardsurfacelevelmodelofanalysis.vIfwechoosetostopwithananalysisofthesecriteriaalonesuchanevaluationwouldconstituteastaticmodelofevaluation.The
28、criteriaindicatedaspartoftheouterconcentriccircle,involveamorein-depthanalysis,requiringwediscoverthroughaseriesofsubjectivejudgments&inferencesthemoredynamicfeaturesofmaterialsdesign.vThesearefeaturesthathavetodowiththemoreabstractqualitiesofflexibility,creativityandexploration,allofwhicharevieweda
29、sachievingthelearningprocessthroughteacher&learner-initiatedcontributions&callforadynamicmodelevaluationAframeworkfortheselectionofcoursebookPsychologicalvalidityvHowdoesthebookrelatetotheneedsofthelearners?vTowhatextentdothematerialshavethepotentialtofosterself-directed,independentlearning?vEdge&Wh
30、arton(1998:296)pointedout,iflearnersinclassroomcaninitiateinteractionpatterns&createthemeaningstheywanttopersonallyexpress,thenthereismorechancethattheywillbeabletomakeuseofsuchlearningtoexploitoutsidesourcesforlearningwhentheyfindthem.vThefollowingaresomecriteria: Rationale/Learnerneeds1.Whatarethe
31、aims&objectivesofthematerials?2.Havetheybeenclearlyspeltout3.Dotheycatertotheneeds,wants,interests&purposesoflearners?4.Arethematerialsappropriate&aretheylikelytobeeffectiveinhelpinglearnerstoacquiredEnglish?5.Dothematerialsmakeapositivecontributiontoheightening&sustaininglearnermotivation?6.Dothema
32、terialsgivethelearnersconfidencetoinitiatecommunicativeevents&persistwithattemptedcommunicationdespitedifficulties?7.Dothematerialscatersforthedevelopmentoflanguageskillsthatwouldenablethemtooperateeffectivelyintheirfutureacademicorprofessionallife?Independence&autonomy1.Isthelearneradecision-makero
33、rjustareceiverofinformation?2.Dothematerialsencourageindependentlanguagelearning?3.Dothematerialsencouragelearnerstoguess,predict,discover,takerisks,tryoutseveralalternatives?4.Dotheygivelearnersplentyofopportunitiestomakechoiceswhichsuittheirlinguisticlevel,theirpreferredlearningstyles,theirlevelof
34、involvementinthetext&thetimeavailabletothem?5.Dothematerialsinvolvethelearnerinthinkingaboutthelearningprocess&inexperiencingavarietyofdifferenttypesoflearningactivities?6.Dotheyallowsufficienttimetothink&reflectontheirlearning?7.Dothematerialshelpindividuallearnersdiscovertheirlearningstyles&prefer
35、ences,studyhabits&learningstrstegies?8.Dothematerialsprovideexplicitinstructiononvariouslanguagelearningstrategies&suggestwaysofusing&developingthem?9.Isasufficientrangeofstrategiesprovided?10.Dotheyencouragelearnerstoevaluatetheirstrategiesorthelearningactivitiesoritscontent?11.Dothematerialsallows
36、elf-monitoring&feedback?Self-development1.Dothematerials/textsengagethelearnersbothcognitively&affectively?2.Dothematerialscreditlearnerswithacapacityforrationalthought&problem-solving?3.Dotheyinvolvethelearnersemotionsinthelearningprocess?4.Dothematerialsallowforthedevelopmentofcreative&criticalthi
37、nkingskills?5.Dothematerialsallowscopeforthedevelopmentofadesirablesetofattitudes?6.Dothematerialsallowtheindividualtodevelophisorhertalentsasfullyaspossible?7.Dothematerialsinvolvethelearnersashumansratherthanjustaslanguagelearners?8.Dothematerialshelpbuildpersonality&learnervoice&givelearnersanund
38、erstandingaboutthemselves?Creativity1.Dothematerialsexploitthelearnerspriorknowledge&experience&provideopportunitiesforfurtherdevelopment?2.Dothematerialsallowsufficientopportunitiesforstudentinventiveness&energy&encouragetheirparticipationinresourcegeneration?3.Dothematerialsprovideadditionalchalle
39、ngeactivitiesforhighlymotivatedlearners?4.Haveopportunitiesbeenbuiltintothematerialsforlearnerstocontribute?Cooperation1.Dothematerialsofferopportunitiesforcooperativelearning,throughpair&groupworkactivities&informationexchangetasks?2.Arestudentsencouragedtolearnfrom&helponeanotherandmoreimportantly
40、,abletoworkinalessstressfulatmosphereintheclassroom?3.Dotheyencouragepositiveinterdependencebygivingeachindividualaspecificroletoplayintheactivityallowinghim/hertocontributeactivelytothegroupinteraction?PedagogicalvalidityAcommercialcoursebookcanpalyanimportantroleinteacherdevelopmentifitoffersteach
41、erstheopportunitytolearnmoreaboutthelanguage&aboutapproachestoteachinginawaythatallowsthemtointegratenewideasintotheirexperiencesofreflectivepracticetoachieveasynthesisofawidevarietyofteaching-relatedschemata(Edge&wgarton,1998).Asisknownthatcoursebooksembodyawholelotoftheoreticalpositions&principles
42、.Byprovidingpracticalguidanceonhowtodealwithparticulartexts&activities,suggestinginnovativemethods&approaches&offeringalternativeplans&procedurestoenableteacherstomaintainstudentmotivationinclass,orgenerateproductiveinteraction,coursebookcanactaspowerfulcatalystsforconsciousness-raising,particularly
43、inthecaseofuntrainedornoviceteachers.v1.Towhatextentdothetexts&topicsincorporatedinthecoursebookhelptheteacherevokelearnerinterest&investment?2.Towhatextentdotheyallowteacher(orlearner)choice,includingtheoptiontoselect,adapt&supplementthesewhenrequiredbytheclassroomgroup?v3.Towhatextentthematerialsf
44、acilitateaflexibleuseofthecoursebook&fostertheteacherscapacityforcreativity&flexibility,inadditiontoprovidingpracticalguidanceforclassroomuse?Guidance1.Aretheteachersnotesuseful&explicit?2.Isthereenoughguidanceortoomuchofit?3.Arethetapescripts,answerskeys,vocabularylists,structural/functionalinvento
45、ries&lessonssummariesprovidedintheteachersbook?4.Dothematerialscaterfordifferentteachingstyles&personalities?5.Isallowancemadefortheperspectives,expectations,&preferencesofnonnativeteachersofEnglish?Choice1.Areteachersencouragedtopresentthelessonsindifferentways?2.Dothematerialsoffertheteacherscopef
46、oradaptation&localization?3.Dotheyencouragetheteachertoadd,delete,change&improvise?4.Dotheyfosterinteachersasenseofchoice&controlinexploitingthecontent? Reflection/Exploration/Innovation1.Dotheyfosterteacherreceptivitytoinnovation&experimentation?2.Dotheyencourageteachercreativity,imagination&expect
47、ation?3.Dotheyhelptoraisetheteacherscriticalconsciousnessbyfacilitatingreflectionaboutthematerialsthemselves&themethodsimplicatedinthem?4.Istheteacherencouragedtoevaluateeachlessons?ProcessandContentValidityvthissetofcriteriarelatestotheoverallviewthecoursebookwriterholds,orwishestoproject,aboutthen
48、atureoflanguage,thenatureoflanguagelearning&hiseducationalphilosophyingeneral.Italsorelatestothewayinwhichtheseviewsarecarriedoverintotasks&activitiesintermsoftheirclarity&coherenceofpresentation,theirsufficiency,accessibility&appropriacy.Theinformationgatheredunderthiscategorythusrelatestothemethod
49、ology,content,format,layout&designfeaturesofthematerialsaswellasthetheoreticalassumptionsaboutlanguage&languagelearningthatunderpinthem.Methodology1.Doesthecoursebookreflecttheinsights&findingsfromcurrenttheory&researchonsecondlanguageacquisition?2.Dolearnersneedtoknowwhatthesentences/textsmeanorsim
50、plytomanipulateforms?3.Dothematerialsmakeuseofwhatweknowaboutthevalueofpermittingasilentperiodatthebeginningstagesorinthelearningofanewfeature?4.Dothematerialshelpdevelopboththedeclarativeknowledge&proceduralknowledgeofthelearnersaswellascontributetobroadereducationalgoals?5.Isthereasufficientbalanc
51、ebetweenanalytical&explanationmodesoflearning?6.Isthereanexplicit&consciousfocusonrules&explanationsorarethereopportunitiesforthelearnerstodiscoverthepatternsinthefirstplace?7.Whatexistingknowledgearelearnersexpectedtobringtothematerials?Istheirknowledgeofcommunicationexploited?Content1.Dothemateria
52、lsprovidearich,varied&comprehensibleinputinordertofacilitateinformalacquisitionaswellasconsciousattentiontolinguistic&pragmaticfeaturesofthetexts?2.Arethetopics/textscurrent&cognitivelychallenging&dotheyhelpenrichthelearnerspersonalknowledge&experience&fosterapositivepersonality?3.Aretherevariedacti
53、vitiesatdifferentlevelsoftaskdifficulty?4.Arethematerialswellcontextualized?5.Dothematerialscallforasufficientlygoodmixofclosed&open-endedresponses?6.Aregrammaticalexplanationsadequate?7.Dothematerialsusecomplexmetalanguage?8.Dotheysufferfromterminologicallooseness?Appropriacy1.Istherelevel&theinten
54、dedaudienceclearlyspeltout?2.Isitpitchedattherightlevelofmaturity&language&attherightconceptuallevel?3.Isthematerialsinteresting,varied&tropicalenoughtoholdtheattentionoflearners?4.Istheauthorssenseofhumororphilosophyobviousorappropriate?5.Istheauthorialvoicefriendly&supportiveorpatronizing?Authenti
55、city1.DothematerialsprovideextensiveexposuretoauthenticEnglishthroughpurposefulreadingand/orlisteningactivities?2.Isthecontentrealistic,reflectingtopics&events&textsfromreal-worldsituation?3.Dotheactivitiesrelatetopupilsinterests&real-lifetasks?4.Dothetasksexploitlanguageinacommunicativeorreal-world
56、way?Ifnot,arethetextsunacceptablysimplifiedorartificial?5.Dothetextsgeneratereal-lifecommunicationprocesses?vCulturalsensitivity1.Whataspectsofcultureareinfocus?2.Arethematerialsrelevant/suitable/appropriatetothelearnersculturalcontext&sensitivetotheirvalue&beliefs?3.Dothematerialsreflectawarenessof
57、&sensitivitytosocioculturalvariation?4.Doesthebookshowparallels&contrastbetweenthelearnersculture&others?5.Isthisdoneinanon-patronizingway?6.Doesthecoursebookenshrinestereotyped,inaccurate,condescendingoroffensiveimagesofgenders,race,socialclassornationality?7.AreaccurateorsanitizedviewsoftheUSAorBr
58、itainpresented;eg,areuncomfortablesocialrealities(forinstance,unemployment,poverty,familybreakdown,racism)leftout?Layout1.Isthereaclarityofdesign&layout?2.Isthereanoptimumdensity&mixoftext&graphicalmaterialoneachpage,oristheimpressiononeofclutter?3.Aretheartwork&typefacesfunctional?Colorful?Appealin
59、g?4.Isthereenoughwhitespaceoneachpage?Accessibility1.Isthematerialsclearlyorganized&easytoaccess?2.Arethereindexes,vocabularylists,sectionheadings&othermethodsofsignpostingthecontentthatallowthestudenttousethematerialseasily,especiallyforrevisionorself-studypurposes?3.Istheearnergivenclearadviceabou
60、thowthebook&itscontentscouldbemosteffectivelyexploited?4.Aretheinstructionsforcarryingoutactivitiesclearly&conciselybutadequatelyarticulated?5.Canlearnersnavigatewitheasetheirwaythroughthematerialsinordertohaveaclearviewoftheprogressmade?Linkage1.Aretheunits&exerciseswelllinkedintermsoftheme,situati
61、on,topic,patternofskilldevelopmentorgrammatical/lexicalprogression?2.Doesthetextbookcoherebothinternally&externally)e.g,withotherbooksinaseries)?Selection/Grading1.Isthelinguisticinventorypresentedappropriateforthestudentspurposes,bearinginmindtheirL1background?2.Istheselection&gradingoftasks&activi
62、tiesbasedonaclearlydiscerniblesystem(e.g,frequencycountsforvocabulary,cognitiveloadfortasks)?3.Doestheintroduction,practice&recyclingofnewlinguisticitemsseemtobeshallow/steepenoughfortheintendedstudents?Sufficiency1.Isthebookcompleteenoughtostandonitsown,ormusttheteacherproducealotofancillarybridgin
63、gmaterialtomakeitworkable?2.Canthecoursebetaughtusingonlythestudentsbook,ormustalltheattendantteachingaidsbedeployed?Balance/integration/Challenge1.Dotheactivitiesallowthelearnerstogobeyondamerelysuperficialunderstandingofthetext/discourse&requireinterpretive&inferentialskillsthatcallforhigher-order
64、criticalthinking?2.Isthereagoodbalancebetweenreceptive&productiveknowledge,skills&abilities?3.Isthefocusontheproductortheprocessoflearningorboth?Stimulus/Practice/Revision1.Aretheresufficientopportunitiesforstudentstouseandpractisetheirconversationalstrategies&skills?2.Istheresufficientlyrichexposur
65、etolanguagedatathroughopportunitiesforextensivereading?3.Dothematerialsprovideforrecyclingofcontent,ofvocabulary&structures?4.Isallowancemadeforrevision,testing,&ongoingevaluation?Areself-checksprovided?Flexibility1.Dothematerialsallowfortheflexibleuseoftasks/texts/activities,permittingthemtobeexplo
66、itedormodifiedasrequiredbylocalcircumstances?Orisittoorigidinformat,structure&approach?2.Dotheyallowforalternativesequencing/routes/paths?Oristheorderofactivitiesinthecurriculum&thepaceatwhichtheymustbedonequitefixed?3.Dothematerialsexpectstudentstospendtoomuchtimeontheirhomework?4.Isthereawiderange
67、ofsupplementarymaterials&teachingaidsavaiable?EducationalValidityDoesthetextbookaccordwithbroadeducationalconcerns(e.g,thenature&roleoflearningskills,conceptdevelopmentinyoungerlearners,thefunctionofknowledgeoftheworld,etc.)?Foreachofthesecriteriaitispossibletogradeacoursebookonascaleof0-5,or0-10,de
68、pendingontherelativeweighttheteacherevaluatorwouldliketoassigntoit.Itispossibletoassignsomeofthecategoriesrelativelymoreweightthanothers.Referencev1.BrianTomlinson.(2003)Developing materials for language teaching.v2.JackC.Richard(2008) Curriculum development in language teaching.vAssignment:Chooseatextbookthatyourarefamiliarwithandidentifythegoodfeatures.
