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1、chapter-5-semanticschapter-5-semantics语语义学义学1.Whatissemantics?(p.104)vItisthestudyofmeaning.1.1OgdenandRichards The Meaning of Meaning (1923)22majorcategoriesofmeaning1.2Meaningasnaming(p.105)Naming theory(Plato):themeaningofexpressioniswhatitrefersto,ornames.Thesemanticrelationshipholdingbetweenawo
2、rdandthethingitdenotesistherelationshipofnaming.Inotherwords,wordsare“names”or“labels”forthingsinourmindorinourexperience.Limitationsofthenamingtheory:vMeaningisabstractandnotrelatedtoindividualthings.Themeaningofbookisrelatedtothegenerationofthecommonpropertiesofthingswhichcanbecalledbooks.vMeaning
3、understoodinthistheorycanatbestcoveronlypartofnouns,butnottherestofwordsofthisclass,norwordsofotherclasses.e.g:sincerity,red,that,quickly,if,and,from.1.3Meaningasconcept(p.106)Conceptualist theory(Ogden and Richards):expressionsactuallymeantheconceptorideaassociatedwiththem.Anyparticularsoundimageis
4、psychologicallyassociatedwithaparticularconcept.Everyoneofuswhoknowsthewordorexpressionhasaconceptorideainhismindassociatedwithit.SemanticTrianglebyOgdenandRichards:thought(concept)symbol(word)referent(thing)Explanation:vThesymbolreferstothelinguisticelements(mainlyreferringtowords).vThereferentisth
5、eobjectintherealworldorinmansexperience.vReferencereferstotheconceptaboutthereferent.Conceptisthegeneralizationofaclassofindividualobjects.vAlinguisticformsymbolizesaconceptandthereforethereisnodirect(necessaryandintrinsic)relationbetweenthesymbol(theword)andthereferent.Thewordisassociatedwiththeref
6、erentbyvirtueofreference(concept).vThesymbolandconceptarelinkedbyapsychologicallyassociativebond.Merits:vItrecognizesthecloserelationbetweenmeaningandconceptandtheroleofconceptinformingmeaning.Limitations:(1)Sinceitonlylooksatthemeaningofwords,itcantexplainhowthemeaningsofmorphemesinapolymorphemicwo
7、rdarerelatedtoeachotherandhowtheyareorganizedintothemeaningoftheword.E.g:uncompromisingly(2)Itfailstointerpretthepolysemicphenomenon,i.e.whyawordmayhaveseveraldifferentmeaningsandhowthesemeaningarerelated.e.g:ball(3)Itfailstointerpretthequestionofwhywordswithdifferentmeaningmayhavethesamereferent.e.
8、g:morningstar/eveningstarWashington/thecapitalofUSA(4)AccordingtotheSemanticTriangle,eachwordinalanguagehasitsreferent.However,forsomewords,therearenotreferentstothem,e.g:if,and,so,perhaps,therefore.(5)Thereferentsofsomewordsmayvaryaccordingtothecontextinwhichtheyoccur.e.g:goodcar/goodteacher/gooddi
9、ctionary/good-hearted(6)Tosummarize,theSemanticTrianglebasicallysuffersfromlookingatthemeaningofwordsinisolationandignoringtheinterrelationofwordsandthesemanticstructureofalanguage.1.4Meaningasbehavior(p.107)Behaviorism (Bloomfield):Languageisregardedakindofhumanbehaviorandcanbetreatedinthewayoftrea
10、tingnon-verbalbehaviorsofhumanbeings.Bloomfieldsstimulus-reactionmodel:SrsRJill is hungry. She sees an apple and by saying something gets Jack to fetch it for her.S:Jillshungerr:alinguisticresponses:alinguisticstimulusforJackR:non-linguisticRESPONSEofgettingtheapple1.5Meaningascontext(p.107)Contextu
11、alist view(inspired by Malinovsky, proposed by Firth):Contextdeterminesthemeaning;meaningisfoundinthecontextwithinwhichaparticularexpressionisutteredsuggeststhatwecanderivemeaningfromtheobservablecontext.Twokindsofcontext:(1)alinguisticcontextand(2)asituationalcontext.Situationalcontext:thespatio-te
12、mporalsituationinwhichutteranceismade.Situationalcontextmainlyinclude:(1)thesetting(formal,informal)(2)thespeakerandhearer(relationship,position)(3)theactivitiestheyareengagedinatthetime(4)thepresenceorabsenceofotherparticipants(relationship,position)(5)thepresenceofvariousexternalobjectsandevents1.
13、6Meaningastruthconditions(p.109)Truth-conditionaltheory:Knowingthemeaningofasentenceisthesameasknowingtheconditionsunderwhichthesentenceistrueorfalse.S is true if and only if Pe.g:Peter is married.TheremustbesomeindividualcalledPeter;Thereisasocialinstitutioncalledmarriage;Thisindividualisinvolvedin
14、thisstateofmarriage.Problem:Howcanwediscussthemeaningofinterrogativesandimperatives?2.Wordmeaning(p.110)2.1 Sense and reference vSenseisdefinedintermsofrelationshipswhichholdbetweenthelinguisticelementsthemselves(mostlywords),itisconcernedwithintralinguisticrelations.vReferenceorextensiondealswithth
15、erelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelements(words,sentences,etc.)andthenon-linguisticworldofexperience(things,actions,eventsandqualities).vSensereferstotheabstractpropertiesofanentity;referencereferstotheconcreteentitieshavingtheseproperties.vWecansayeverywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.vGr
16、ammaticalwordslikebut, if, anddonotrefertoanything.WordslikeGod, ghost, dragonrefertoimaginarythings,whichhavenoreference.vThereisnoabsolutedividinglinebetweenwhatisintheworldandwhatisinlanguage.vForLeech,senseandreferencemeanthesimilarideaasconnotationanddenotation.2.2Leech:Seventypesofmeaning(p.11
17、1)Conceptual /denotative/ referential meaning:concernswiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitrefersto.(central)Associative meaning (2-6):Connotative meaning:thepropertiesoftheentityawordrefersto.Social meaning (usually stylistic):thesocialcircumstancesoflanguageuse(dialects,registers). Affectiv
18、e meaning:thefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writerconveyedbytheword. Reflective meaning:associatedwithanothersenseofthesameexpression. Collocative meaning:associatedwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.Thematic meaning:determinedbytheorderofthewordsinasentenceandthedifferentpromi
19、nencetheyeachreceive.Q1:WhatisthedifferenceofConnotationandDenotationinphilosophy?Canyouexplainthisbytheexampleofhuman?A1:ThedenotationisanypersonsuchasJohnandMary,theconnotationisbiped,featherless,rational,etc.Q2:Whatisthedifferencebetweenpoliticianandstatesman?A2:Theaffectivemeaningsaredifferent.T
20、heformerisderogatoryandthelatterisfavorable.Q3:Whatisthedifferencebetweencast, throwandchuck?A3:Thesocialmeanings(stylisticmeanings)aredifferent.Castisliterary,throwisgeneralandchuckiscasual.Q4:Whatisthereflectivemeaningofintercourse?A4:Sexual.Q5:Whatisthecollocativemeaningofthewordprettyinpretty gi
21、rl/ boy/ woman/color?A5:Ithassuchcollocativemeanings:beautiful/charming/graceful/elegant.Q6:Whichreceivesthethematicmeaninginthefollowingsentences?MrSmithdonatedthemoney.ThemoneywasdonatedbyMr.Smith.A6:Theunderlined.2.3Semanticfield(p.117)Asetofwordswithanidentifiablesemanticconnection.Set1:cup,mug,
22、wineglass,tumbler,plasticcup,gobletSet1constituteasemanticfield.Sports:tennis,badminton,golf,soccer,basketballKinshipterms:father,mother,brother,sister,uncleEmotions:angry,happy,sad,afraid,depressedvTheabsenceofawordinaparticularplaceinasemanticfieldofalanguageiscalledlexicalgap.vInEnglish,thereisno
23、singularnounthatcoversbothcowandbullashorsecoversstallionandmare.vWehavebrotherversus sister,sonversusdaughter,butnoseparatelexemesfor“male” and “female” cousin.2.4Componentialanalysis(p.118)Componential analysisreferstoanapproachadoptedbystructuralsemanticistsindescribingthemeaningofwordsorphrases.
24、Thisapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthetotalmeaningofawordcanbeanalyzedinterms of a number of distinct elements ormeaningcomponents(calledsemanticfeatures).Componential analysis is often seen as a processaimingatbreakingdownthemeaningofawordintoitsminimal distinctive features or properties, which area
25、lsocalledcomponentsbysomelinguists.Onewayofdescribingthecomponentsofawordistousefeaturesymbols,whichareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters,with “+” “-” before them, plus sign indicates thepresenceofacertainproperty,andminussignindicatestheabsenceofit.e.g.man:+HUMAN+ADULT+MALEwoman:+HUMAN+ADULTMALEboy
26、:+HUMANADULT+MALEgirl:+HUMANADULTMALEfather=PARENT(X,Y)&MALE(X)mother=PARENT(X,Y)&-MALE(X)take=CAUSE(X,(HAVE(X,Y)give=CAUSE(X,(-HAVE(X,Y)vAdvantages: by specifying the semantic features ofcertain words, we may better account for senserelations.Synonym - words having the same semanticcomponents.Anton
27、ym-wordshavingacontrastingcomponent.Hyponym-wordshavingallsemanticcomponentsofanother.vDisadvantages: It would be senseless to analyze themeaningofeverywordbybreakingitintoitsmeaningcomponents.2.5Senserelationships(p.120)2.5.1 SynonymySameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in
28、meaning are called synonyms.e.g.buyandpurchase,worldanduniverse,brotherlyandfraternal母语词外来词外来词vhomedomesticvanswerreplyvrisemountascendQ:WhyaretheresomanysynonymsinEnglish?Discussthefollowingdifference:1.LittleTombuys/purchasesatoybear.2.Imthrifty.Youareeconomical.Andheisstingy.3.Autumn/fall,flats/a
29、partments,underground,tube/subway4.Itisaprettylittlehouse.Whatapoorlittleboy!*Itisaprettysmallhouse.*Whatapoorsmallboy!5.Strongcoffee,powerfulmachine*Powerfulcoffee,*strongmachineSosynonymscandifferintheaspectsofstyle,affection,dialects,connotativemeaning,collocativemeaning.2.5.2Antonymy oppositenes
30、s of meaning.Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. 3 types: 1.Gradableantonymy2.Complementaryantonymy3.ConverseantonymyGradableantonymy:Theoppositenessofmeaningthatholdsinmorethanonedimension.Theyaregradableinthesenseofmoreorlessandthereisapossibilitytoplaceanintermediatebetweentwoantonym
31、s.long-shortbig-smallrich-poorbeautiful-uglygood-badold-younghot-coldtall-shortCharacteristicsofgradableantonymy:1.gradable: the denial of one is not necessarily 2. the assertion of the other. Some intermediate forms exist. 2.They can be modified by VERY.3.They may have comparative or superlative de
32、grees. 4.Antonyms of this kind are graded against different norms. No absolute criterion exists. 5.One member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term. Q:Canwesay“Howyoungareyou”?A:No,thereisahabitinit.Inhowoldareyou,oldisunmarked,the usual, more often used. Ifsome
33、thingmarkedisused,itsuggestssomething odd, unusualhere.Moreoftenweusethecoverterm.Complementaryantonymy:Complementaryantonymyisofbinarytaxonomicsandregardedasaspecialcaseofimcompatibilityholdingoveratwo-termset.alive-deadmale-femalehit-misspresent-absentpass-failinnocent-guiltyboy-girlCharacteristic
34、sofcomplementaryantonymy:1.The denial of one member of the pair implies theassertionoftheotherandtheassertionofonemeansthe denial of the other. In other words, it is not amatterofdegreebetweentwoextremes,butamatterofeitheroneortheother. Thereisnointermediategroundbetweenthetwo.2.Theadj.inthistypecan
35、notbemodifiedbyVERY.3.Theydonothavecomparativeorsuperlativedegrees.4.Thenormisabsolute.5.Thereisnocovertermforthetwomembersofapair.Discussionv1.半死不活v2.Heismoredeadthanalive.v3.true:false,whichtypeofantonym?vHowdoyouunderstand“Howtrueisthestory?”Converseantonymy/relationalopposites:The members of a p
36、air do not constitute apositive-negative opposition. They showthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities.buy-sellborrow-lendgive-receivevE.g:buy/sell,lend/borrow,give/receive,parent/child,employer/employee,teacher/student,above/below,before/aftervFeatures:Withgradable,orcomplementary,antonyms,onec
37、ansay“Xisgood”,or“Xismale”,withoutpresupposingY.Itis,asitwere,amatterofXonly,whichhasnothingtodowithY.Butwithconverseantonyms,therearealwaystwosides.Disccusion1.Canwesay“Heisahusband/son”?2.HowdoyouunderstandHe is a child/teacher?(child:parent)(teacher:student)Differentnorms:child-adult,teacher-othe
38、rprofessions3.Whattypeofantonymyforthefollowingwords?bigger/smaller,longer/shorter,better/worse1.Notallwordshaveantonyms,likehouse,window,book,drink.2.Onewordmayhaveoneormoreantonyms,e.g.man,animal,boy,woman3.Antonymsarestrongertonegate.ve.g.Itisnotfairtoputtheblameonhim.Itisunfairtoputtheblameonhim
39、.Fixedphrases: Column A Column Bhusbandandwife夫妻rightandleft左右causeandeffect因果richandpoor贫富blackandwhite黑白oldandnew新旧thickandthin厚薄soonerorlater迟早farandnear远近heavyandlight轻重2.5.3HyponymyThemeaningofonewordisincludedinthemeaningofanotherword.Superordinate(theclassterm):genusHyponyms(thelowerterms):sp
40、eciese.g.seasons(superordinate)springsummerautumnwinter(co-hyponyms)Testpattern:X is a kind of YvFlower:rose,peony,lily,daisy,tulip,violetvColor:red,green,yellow,blue,whitevAnimal:tiger,lion,elephant,cow,horse,humanvVegetable:potato,cabbage,carrot,lettuce,eggplant2.5.4PolysemyAsinglewordhasasetofdif
41、ferentmeanings.Hand:1.partofthehumanarmbeyondthewrist2.possession:inoneshand3.source:second-hand4.skill:Sheisalighthandatcookery.5.employee:Handsarewanted.2.5.5Homonymy（同音异义）Thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e.,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.pupil,
42、bank, bat, race, ground2.5.6Homophony（同音异形）Whentwowordsareidenticalinsoundbutdifferentinwritingandmeaning,theyarehomophones.rain/reign, night/knight, piece/peace, leak/leek2.5.7Homography（同形异音）Whentwowordsareidenticalinspellingbutdifferinpronunciation,theyarehomographs.bowv.-bown.tearv.-tearn.leadv.
43、-leadn.windn.-windv.2.5.8MeronymyPart/wholerelationship.Testpattern:X is a part of Ybodyheadnecktrunklegarm3.Sentencemeaning(p.126)3.1SentenceandpropositionSentence:usu.expressacompletethought;beginwithacapitalletterandendwithaperiod,questionmarkorexclamationmark.Proposition:canbejudgedtobetrueorfal
44、se.(P.126eg:18)1.Asentenceisaproposition.(F)2.Anypropositionisasentence.(F)3.Differentsentencesmayexpressthesameproposition.(T)3.2semanticroles(p.127)Semanticroleofanounphrase: The hunter hit the lion.Agent:theresponsibleinitiatorofanaction.Patient:theentitythatundergoesacertainchangeofstate.John li
45、kes blueberry pancakes.Experiencer:whoisexperiencingaphysicalormentalsensation.John was injured by a stone.Instrument:theintermediarythroughwhichanagentperformstheaction.Cause:anynaturalforcethatbringsaboutachangeofstate.I gave John a puppy.Recipient:thatwhichreceivesaphysicalobject. John passed the
46、 message to me for Tom.Benefactive:thatforwhichanactionisperformed.Beijing is cold in winter.Locative:thelocationofanactionorstate.She left home the day before yesterday.Temporal:thetimeatwhichtheactionorstateoccurred.3.3 Sentential relationships (p.131)1. Entailment (A entails B ) 蕴涵蕴涵Entailment re
47、fers to the relation between a pair of sentences such that the truth of the second sentencenecessarilyfollowsfromthetruthofthefirstsentence,whilethefalsityofthefirstfollowsfromthefalsityofthesecond.(Informula:AB,-B -A)1.A:HehasbeentoFrance.B:HehasbeentoEurope.2.A:Johnpickedatulip.B:Johnpickedaflower
48、.3.A:JohnkilledBill.B:Billdied.2. Presupposition (A presupposes B)预设预设/前提前提Presuppositionreferstotherelationbetweenapairofsentencessuchthatthetruthof the second sentence necessarily followsfrom both the truth and falsity of the firstsentence.(Informula:AB,-A B)1.A:ThequeenofEnglandisold.B:Englandhas
49、aqueen.2.A:Isyourfatherathome?B:Youhaveafather.3. A is synonymous with B A:Theboykilledthedog.B:Thedogwaskilledbytheboy. 4. A is inconsistent with B A:Johnismarried.B:Johnisabachelor.vIntermoftruthvalue:IfAistrue,BisfalseandifAisfalse,Bistrue.5. A is a contradictionA: My unmarried sister is married to abachelor. 6. A is semantically anomalousA:Thetablehasbadintentions.
