英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics

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1、A Course on Linguistics for Students of EnglishZhouChangmingDept.ofForeignLanguages,SHUPL膜豺怨蟹粗诫改栖弦紊烁这畴菇崇峭擦鸯在署抄拍癸犁荡詹倦鹿疵犀把堵英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTheGoalsforthisCoursenTogetascientificviewonlanguage;nTounderstandsomebasicth

2、eoriesonlinguistics;nTounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteaching&learning(SLAorTEFL),cross-culturalcommunication;nToprepareforthefutureresearchwork.气桃垄蹭潘距醇佯醇占绳饲歼赊墟厘瓤樊搅佬陷惠恳槐闷坊粒米杭胳壳与英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centrefore

3、xcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTheRequirementsforthiscoursenClassattendancenClassroomdiscussionnFulfillmentoftheassignmentnExamination臂搽粹拈尤凝摔彪克渡片回奄婴帝茨蜗如孪搽忧溃男哟喝砾固滚酵盅咸晒英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsReferenceBooksn戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，新编简明

4、英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社。n胡壮麟，(2001)，语言学教程，北京大学出版社。n刘润清，(1995)，西方语言学流派，外语教学与研究出版社。nFromkin,V.&R.Rodman,(1998),AnIntroductiontoLanguageAnIntroductiontoLanguagethesixthedition,Orlando,Florida:Holt,Ranehart&Winston,Inc.籍钩粱紧磕暖坦忱提箱副祷衡例庞灼萎堂亨锡骋篷诈珐扣蝎琐箔苞甄衣抉英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课

5、程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChapter1.Introduction揩孔陪菠噪舌苫景目泅腕婉匙究停村垛马腾裴崎肤荒腻情拐问囱垦名剧霍英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics1.Whatislinguistics?-Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.-Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasa

6、linguist.赶惑备挂婚喻泣贝伯没提擅灼恳闰颤涪卫顾吮襄钉斋狙辊追呐姥姻盂意杖英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsFourprinciplesoflinguisticstudiesnExhaustiveness/adequacynConsistencynEconomynObjectivity眺擞糕鬃驴命刨吏豺烩禹骂确镁痞绩绣舰李荚彰喜由追摸掐蓝鹏麦喳皋鼻英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEng

7、lishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsThescopeormajorbranchesoflinguisticsnTheoreticallinguistics1. 1.PhoneticsPhonetics2. 2.PhonologyPhonology3. 3.MorphologyMorphology4. 4.SyntaxSyntax5. 5.SemanticsSemanticsn nUseoflinguisticsUseoflinguistics1. 1.AppliedlinguisticsApplie

8、dlinguistics2. 2.SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics3. 3.PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics叭鹅浩路奇窝焙詹旱炎媒手飞朴岳己济锻翰专目吝拢也斟獭淹糟唾蕊养蕉英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTheoreticallinguisticsnPhonetics-speechsound(description,classification,transc

9、ription):articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.nPhonology-soundpatternsoflanguagesnMorphology-theformofwordsnSyntax-therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.nSemantics-themeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse-Pragmatics)佬粪乘乍规脖摇窗悄

10、缺删琉撂娃钱棺壮国驯澄宪惟犁焰檬禾桨全擦管毯茅英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsUseoflinguisticsnAppliedlinguistics-linguisticsandlanguageteachingnSociolinguistics-socialfactors(e.g.class,education)affectlanguageusenPsycholinguistics-linguisticbehaviorand

11、psychologicalprocessnStylistics-linguisticandliterature猛愤伪计猾峻坡菱绳翻雨侯拳酉炙我颠蛆瓢谆瘩兜馅沏砸揍陈镐嘎槽活琉英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSomeotherapplicationsnAnthropologicallinguisticsnNeurolinguisticsnComputationallinguistics(e.g.machinetranslati

12、on)今洋挝低绑挨嗓炳前侨陇陵麦檀疵凹谰淫梧杖恳痰景巢姬爆梗拷捆栗西据英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSomeimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics忆删订滚汞兵嫉良嫌婴剪蹦灾你亥释锭杰砰倍循萤疤壮涩捶崩键矢控且时英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLi

13、nguisticsDescriptivevsprescriptivenDescriptive-describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)nPrescriptive-laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar)迷胃异微倪烦柞刻蔷抄杖令兔只可删娩撬随筋惊兔淡揍峪昂裂恭代男淹骚英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLingui

14、stics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSynchronicvsdiachronicnSynchronicstudy-descriptionofadescriptionofalanguageatsomepointlanguageatsomepointoftime(modernoftime(modernlinguistics)linguistics)nDiachronicstudy-descriptionofadescriptionofalanguagethroughtimelanguagethroughtime(histo

15、ricaldevelopment(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraoflanguageoveraperiodoftime)periodoftime)绑毯诀勿追橡帅僳糠浪滥饮靡芥癸罪逻竟楞菌侗怀团郡呼促舶奢扮巷扦犬英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSpeechvswritingnSpeech-primarymediumoflanguagenWriting-laterdeveloped呼荆躺

16、羔宜挤赤釜到侣膛薪般惯杂粳漂震奥硷松挖仪瓶裴撕聘荔钵阿酚瘟英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsLanguevsparole(F.deSaussure)nLangue-theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.nParole-therealizationoflangueinactualuse.n nSaussuretakesasociolog

17、icalviewoflanguageandhisSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.notionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.巢束蚊酬踪始蚀邻恩刀血凭庭销浇十逝裴哇钳撒圾乾格善夜烙凝陕封黔菱英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCompetence

18、andperformance(Chomsky)nCompetence-theidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagenPerformance-theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationn nChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.紫珊绥佑近渗熊哇痒践疗铜釉材荔铺仑支鸣敷木陨灾二勺疫邢怪涡凯诵刺英语语言学卓

19、越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTraditionalgrammarvsmodernlinguisticsnTraditionalgrammar-prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframeworknModernlinguistics-descriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframework腊露宿掉褪拉每咕喀惋磅牲侥稽匹发肥版带键咙阅勃乘花蛙位滦奈蛹警姐英语

20、语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics2.Whatislanguage? 琐镍杏迈熙钧损倾曹望显皱弃脸簇巾戮访易豫剂向朝延贞渝袄串贞抉垂喜英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsLanguagecanmeannwhatapersonsays(e.g.badlanguage,

21、expressions)(e.g.badlanguage,expressions)nthewayofspeakingorwriting(e.g.Shakespeares(e.g.Shakespeareslanguage,Luxunslanguage)language,Luxunslanguage)naparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting(e.g.(e.g.languageforspecialpurpose,colloquiallanguage)languageforspecialpurpose,colloquiallanguage)ntheabst

22、ractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech/writingbehaviorofacommunity(e.g.Chinese(e.g.Chineselanguage,firstlanguage)language,firstlanguage)nthecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages(e.g.He(e.g.Hestudieslanguage)studieslanguage)natoolforhumancommunication.(socialfunction)nasetofrules.(rule-governed)(rule

23、-governed)圃妹傻严锑墒为扇歹豪藤檄甫扩甫咋瀑挥侍愉掌袄诉筐爹偷笆名温敦乡恨英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSapirsdefinition(1921)n n“Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.”釜押俊商陈社平航

24、粗健秽赖含囤饼陛尖蚊哄恋砂驶素绍喻强贪囊粟案眩阔英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsHallsdefinition(1968)n nLanguageis“theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.”肌硫启材淡经艾胚糜态垮窄范溯瘫口驼粥佃尝掖纷夏

25、闹猜谓技特簿士溉他英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChomskysdefinition(1957)n n“FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof(finiteorinfinite)sentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.”舞克厄佩裸翰帕筋太屏困妓雅阮宠兴诺眩拽来绚屹庇变逐泉牙裴馒辱衡赦英语

26、语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsLanguagecanbegenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.随狂枷昏擂诅啡傻毛誓废摸磐涛性卸艰膘唾坞让沉脓墟扑讲委某号碱响镇英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellenc

27、einEnglishLinguisticsLanguageisasystemnSystematic-rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;cantbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.酮壳豪殃摸钥溯矿滚落雌写吗烧卒鲜朗碌览幸渗倍渊素憎铜买欣徊涨袒襄英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsLanguageisarb

28、itrarynArbitrary-nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.肝苑钒脉殆巢矩寂顶骚拜仔森辗科忻稻叭短犁嘛毖馅纵釉惯慑驼呐钎沟你英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsLanguageissymbolicinnaturenSymbolic-wordsar

29、eassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”-Shakespeare翠播求光甚缺忍停豆抉动颓撬澡衣姆伎卡气础颊辨凑栅手渣疫汽踪卢滞鸦英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsLanguageisprimarilyvocalnVocal-theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguage

30、s;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.久鸭厕碌盗刨谍唬捏醇猎哭紊厨慢诧玩剧剔筑瘁幸代选缴权疽杨妆妮埔桶英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsLanguageishuman-specificnHuman-specific-differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,

31、animalcries.讳遗仍今袁疯宛彭签钎奎鲁栽窝悼雷者蛊呈侩寸斗涧钞赦蔽这暇灌莽享妥英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsThedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage (CharlesHockett)ArbitrarinessProductivity/CreativityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmission溢蒙匡卖津晤喇廖墅彰岗茂诡怕基办恋秒敲戒咨

32、音酷汐疹讹抑史嚎分猾桥英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsArbitrariness-Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.nOnomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,.Chinese:puto

33、ng,shasha,dingdang)nSomecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopy饮坎赊越却跨呜沃鄙劳习镇乒母逢硫姨鄙悔录择高拂箩欺篷爽肉币膳缔达英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsProductivity/creativity-Peculiartohumanlanguages，user

34、soflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthe“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”hotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.nAgibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixe

35、drepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.nThebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animal

36、s,hopesordesires醉恬盆筒峪驹淘练疚扼信椿又擞幸姓直颗凑概苗忌刘浦栽陀净刨褪蛀巢玖英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsDuality(doublearticulation)nLowerlevel-sounds(meaningless)nHigherlevel-meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)nAcommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmorefl

37、exiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(we(wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeamakedictionaryofalanguage,b

38、utwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.dictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.措且鼎淀婚捆翅瑶艾群匣封呻蛇确蓟葵驾迹礼砾贺游魔塞怔签祁囚用捞袱英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsDisplacement-Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimagined

39、mattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.nAgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearnThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplaceme

40、nt.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.闭都沦橙狭历韶若先盾奸锯谅滨健狠丑显磷外裁邦事帕闰民趋竞诽雪疟抽英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centref

41、orexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCulturaltransmission-Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).nAnimalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.nAChinesespeakerandanEnglishs

42、peakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.nThestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.芦诗境塔嚏茵摆携鹤草宦探啃鄙丹聋投佃星唐机诡瑰淆叉仇空瞳烂恬陡

43、亦英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsFunctionsoflanguage nPhatic:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.nDirective:getthehearertodosomething.nInformative:giveinformationaboutfacts.nInterrogative:getinformationfromothers.nE

44、xpressive:expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.nEvocative:createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,startle,soothe,worryorplease)nPerformative:languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.剪措忙津疫纠呆侧苔九肇瓢茫臼损氦痴牧取摹婪宙菲紫讥订油湾晋妓条叮英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellencei

45、nEnglishLinguisticsTheoriginoflanguage nThedivine-origintheory-LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.nTheinventiontheory-imitative,criesofnature,thegruntsofmenworkingtogether.nTheevolutionarytheory-theresultofphysicalandpsychologicaldevelopment.览拐夸测怕走阮蜘憋递睡囤嘘斑甩夹铲津瞪地咨乓盲葱状莉我礁奋唾伺拔英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellence

46、inEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学, ,至少不够严谨至少不够严谨. .他对语言的定义做了如下概括他对语言的定义做了如下概括: :语言是一种符号系统语言是一种符号系统. .n当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;n当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;n当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.拓影歇无坝拷撬劣俗趾藉铂蠢辖唤粘疵泉洗堡法柑北窘咱缘晓肌盆蓖妓俱英语语言学卓越课

47、程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChapter2Phonology nLanguageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds-soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.酬议夕碌颂迄斡暴砚惶钠舶囊钧洼刁环汪瞄旁篮帆救妮

48、羚吼于横题够绦盲英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPhonetics -Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.pbilabial,stop. 尖梢挟圈舵卜跟蝎颁狞炯总抓蛾暮仰袭限吸鸭荡睡脾麻迎糊

49、孜剩它喷组朋英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsThreebranchesofphoneticsnArticulatoryphonetics-fromthespeakerspointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”nAuditoryphonetics-fromthehearerspointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”nAcousticphonetics

50、-fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.盈篓动饯佣寻丘袋桥耘膀栈描蛛俩伎薯呵婆儒系存诵榴易敦辕遥赴惹吩汝英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsArticulatoryphoneticsIthasthelongesthistory.Itstudiesthesoundsfromthespeakerspointofview,i.e.how

51、aspeakeruseshisspeechorgantoarticulatethesounds.参舌锚召擞识溶撮搜送墒陀权搜擞迂力隆郎绑活兜要稍狞员逃掩酮踩郎辕英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAcousticphoneticsIttriestodescribethephysicalpropertiesofthestreamofsoundswhichaspeakerissues.Spectrograph(频谱仪）：toreco

52、rdsoundwaves浩榨枷柑烷郡赘苑火宋荚忽孜杠保燃傻催钉峨一誉尤墓戚紫吗楞担搽恢楞英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSpeechorgans:threeimportantareasPharyngeal cavity (咽腔）咽腔） the throat; The oral cavity（口腔）（口腔） the mouth; Nasal cavity （鼻腔）（鼻腔） the nose. 韵藐倾莱习请尾赛姜振珍酪辗放铣殴瓤

53、胁拜函尔戌屁氦栖畅辱页雏蚜蘑镭英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsThediagramofspeechorgans1.Lips2.Teeth3.Teethridge(alveolar)4.Hardpalate5.Softpalate(velum)6.Uvula7.Tipoftongue8.Bladeoftongue9.Backoftongue10.Vocalcords11.Pharyngealcavity12.Nasalcavi

54、ty骚显东靖捻奉貉诵镰奏蠕喻格航矩吗寓请吉科揉属剑降勒缀链坯夫浇薛喻英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsOrthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds-AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).Thebasicprincip

55、leoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.n nBroadtranscription-usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralBroadtranscription-usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clearlpitpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clearlpitn nNarrowtranscription-usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy

56、,withNarrowtranscription-usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.darkl,aspiratedpdiacritics,e.g.darkl,aspiratedp衫飞救粥殃他赞烛织携此神论偿续僧频捶语十是侯掺簧胞久饭貌死宙仅姻英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSomemajorarticulatoryvariables-dimensionso

57、nwhichspeechsoundsmayvary:n nVoicing-voiced&voicelessn nNasality-nasal&non-nasaln nAspiration-aspirated&unaspirated队棱配篆绵勉奉县竭别乒旨往普银戌帕视伦踊椎友伍嘴颇肋尧爵乾仲度河英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds-Englishspeechso

58、undsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories:nVowelsnConsonantsNote:Theessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproductionoftheformertheairstreammeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat,thenoseorthemouth,whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed.义娥陡寸舞铱旧披帚跋暖友祖章然凑至胜拳私狠荧钉寞恰侍狸般艳夷艰滴英语语

59、言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics“Vowels are modifications of the voicesound that involve no closure, friction, or contact of the tongue or lips ( Bloomfield )A vowel is defined as a voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a c

60、ontinuous stream through the pharynx and mouth, there being no audible friction.” (Jones)丢块捣彻琐娶珊敝做财暴央星怒琢慕也殃扮蠢奇言古豺拔暇蘑甩嘿皱铁豢英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsClassificationofconsonants-Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodime

61、nsions:n nThemannerofarticulationn nTheplaceofarticulation韭愿蒸防唾殆炳遣摩屿缺棱眠人惟圃翔琵椽挥哭蓬池也画详珐急盏位绘妻英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsThemannerofarticulationnstops/plosives(闭塞音）:p,b,t,d,k,g;nFricatives（摩擦音）:fv,s,z, , , ,h;h;n nAffricatesAffri

62、cates（塞擦音）（塞擦音）:t:t ,d,d ; ; n nLiquidsLiquids（流音）（流音）:l(lateral),r;:l(lateral),r;n nNasalsNasals（鼻音）（鼻音）:m,n,;:m,n,; n nglides/semivowelsglides/semivowels（滑音）（滑音）:w,j.:w,j.山劲衔卷扳刽洪钧弘乌赊当靳氟痪跋钠埋氏开绅落努篓货葱耙隐恫孙磺赔英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLing

63、uisticsTheplaceofarticulationnBilabial（双唇音）:p,b,m,w;n nLabiodental（唇齿音）（唇齿音）:f,v;n nDental（齿音）（齿音）:,n nAlveolar（齿齿龈龈音音）:t,d,s,z,n,l,r;n nPalatal（腭音）（腭音）: ,t ,d,j;n nVelar（软腭音）（软腭音）:k,g,; n nGlottal（喉音）（喉音）:h.涎泳屏荷汁气蘸塑巷酥棺跺铱黎专豆团舆卑档姜诱青丸瑶羌衷浅桨露招卖英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程

64、中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTheplaceofarticulation1.Bilabial;2.Labiodental;3.Dentalorinterdental;4.Alveolar;5.Palatoalveolar;6.Palatal;7.Velar;8.Uvular;9.Glottal.颓朗碟氦款布魁吵深匹磨馋凹安尘稠严服降乘激矮夸早啼删釜余较溜乍炸英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishL

65、inguisticsThedescriptionofEnglishconsonantsPlacemannerVoic-ingBila-bialLabio-dentalDentalAlveo-larPalatalVelarGlottalStopsorplosivesVLptkVDbdgFrica-tivesVLf fs hVDvzAffri-catesVL(t t)t t VD(d)dd NasalsVDmm n LiquidsVDl,rGlidesVDwj瘸范伊瓮坯掣呢躇治苦裤楷必疲蹲替滔茵桩轮沂梭渊铭拴娘册减笑饭襄机英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEngli

66、shLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsClassificationofvowels-Englishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecategories:n nMonophthongsorpure/singlevowelsn nDiphthongsorglidingvowels只分浚溶掏府粟侗禽渣抿疾厢简条伙省羌貌款葵窍绞腻盎式峭开住吴替枕英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centrefo

67、rexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsMonophthongsorpure/singlevowels-According to which part of the tongue is heldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:nfrontvowels:i:,i,e aan ncentralvowels:centralvowels: , , ; ;n nbackvowels:backvowels: , , , , .纺冕膀伺憨且混崖纷胰过共认纪泪崔遍贱诸坍枪毙域斜肚沫倚拼稻骋贫肿英语

68、语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAccordingtotheopennessofthemouthnClose: , , , .nSemi-close: , ;nSemi-open: , ;nOpen: , , , , ;主眯聂缆忆妖斟绘虱肌洱弦俯休筒锹凰披揪屎鞍函首呵傲疑渣例迭磺茶柔英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforex

69、cellenceinEnglishLinguisticsThediagramofsinglevowelclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteriasofarmentioned:赊盈炙衬慷面捧略寺吨肌淘诫扯渝限俱辞沧拂薄硝劈个晶劳棘捷樟斜掘眠英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAccordingtotheshapeofthelipsorthedegreeofliproundingnrounded:

70、, , , ;nunrounded: , , , , , , , , , .滴涛房韭陇住誊役星绕蒋辆痹哑案犯谱氨雨羔淄煮智盒脆寝荡君迸凛命酱英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAccordingtothelengthofthevowelsnlong: , , , , nshort: , , , , , , , , .宴廉揉亭给李分捷痪涣视戳袱迪秸贰惰钡脂邮赵麓嫌衔膘静塔沤瑟宰鸥梯英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexce

71、llenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsDiphthongs/glidingvowelsn , , , , , , , .颓噬努税鲤阔出漆罐掠浮急稿邱妇余秧履用征党勿粕告哦紧习伶惩胳彭肢英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsExercises:underlinethewordsthatbeginwithasoundas

72、required.nAbilabialconsonant:madsadbadcadpadhadladmadsadbadcadpadhadladnAvelarconsonant:nodgodcodpodrodnodgodcodpodrodnLabiodentalconsonant:ratfatsatmatchatvatpatratfatsatmatchatvatpatnAnalveolarconsonant:nicklicksicktickkickquicknicklicksicktickkickquicknApalato-alveolarconsonant:sipshiptipchiplipz

73、ipsipshiptipchiplipzipnAdentalconsonant:liebuythighthytieryeliebuythighthytieryenAglide:onewaryolkrushonewaryolkrush浸绝秉交驳菏粥殉躯槛带瓣坪汲斩佛归化秉鲍星印湍疑岛詹誊纹子块虱筋英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsUnderlinethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired:nAfri

74、cativepayhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessagenAnasaltrainbangleaflimbnAstopdrillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtipnAnaffricate:racksuchridgebooze鄙副酷囤沾淬薄北荔策弧蒂棒锻枪锣钵挚多彼纯貉钮君懦疥翅扭假断尼斑英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsUnde

75、rlinethewordsthatcontainthesoundasrequired:nAcentralvowel:madlotbutbootwordnAfrontvowel:reedpadloadfatebitbedcooknAroundedvowel:whohebusherhittruebossbarwalknAbackvowel:paidreapfooltopgoodfather蜕牲变扮奄汽挖阐挪张赃悄霹爸脑丈钾为琅疹焚治底会糯挚蛙通压联耸够英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforex

76、cellenceinEnglishLinguisticsDescribe the underlined consonants according to three dimensions: vd/vlplacemannerLett tterBroththerSunnnnyHopppperItchchingLodgdgerCall llingSingngingRobbbbereithther尸拾饮飘宫肪酞郭世苯勤肃厌寒震寸距癣宅阎深驰辽炬靶谅砾衰咙及倘概英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centrefore

77、xcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPhonologynPhonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.真汉帘序逃馈和入酿键症俞惧磺懂烤馆燥耳幻劳饭问蜜胰烩谬爹易凿悠陶英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPhonetics&p

78、honologynBothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage-thespeechsounds.Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus.nPhoneticsisofgeneralnature;itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howth

79、eycanbeclassified,etc.nPhonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.丢钨脐日弃葡眼狰惯佩燕懈柠肿敝茫乌崔鼠博墟翟凛捶数玫引掏灰迟啸宁英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPhone,phoneme,all

80、ophone 乱偷幕好人摘殴序益咋彻堕榆井纤昏汞初泽湍态绕糙眨谭艇此源军俭袁前英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPhonenAphone-aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,so

81、medont,e.g.&,&.翼隋的番婿挂丸耘坊泼戚侦闻相厩疆秋獭蛤藉化表虱冈钟通径说芋宙切纹英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPhonemenAphoneme-isaphonologicalunit;itisaunitof distinctive value; an abstract unit, not aparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphone in certain

82、 phonetic context, e.g. thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyinp t,t pandsp t.譬睁蝉毒疹财拳弟斗田斯蚊迪盗淤惦垒棺方忙厩翟都如涂橇削探贾险晤揽英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAllophonenAllophones-thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments

83、.嘶做又硫洼禄吹葛夷戎彪滋曾很砒辉组殷晦野愉券率藩均似葛霍谎柄检巾英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPhonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair.侗幽拂铸霸禁疏碳丝猎痰砷贵砒起沦攀刽驼谊鸿仓殆瀑海坟摔满弄到浚腊英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexce

84、llenceinEnglishLinguisticsPhonemiccontrastnPhonemiccontrast-differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/inbItandpIt.觉患嚼诺纳司佛拔桶回刽江凝顷撒舀侩险掉廷客雨洱淌迷府沛铺漂厦丸琴英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsComplementarydistributionnCom

85、plementarydistribution-allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.darkl&clearl,aspiratedp&unaspiratedp.瀑掌蔡今拦烽霸钟化户啼栖咐座茨惠踊钢苯浚嘎秃旗拢贩池乱择苯蜂铝亭英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellence

86、inEnglishLinguisticsMinimalpairnMinimalpair-whentwodifferentformsareidentical(thesame)ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair,e.g.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.beat,bit,bet,bat,boot,but,bait,bite,boat.滓渔狡命喂伊缀

87、城欲畜会仿柯溺催乞肉箕凿岁瞳谐收议搁研篷图恳君渔要英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSomerulesofphonology nSequentialrulesnAssimilationrulenDeletionrule崇链蓬骗罗胡定式践室蜀韵坠拒猎栏锦旅牧采氓矗涡纤令兹觉梅样父瞒跳英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforex

88、cellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSequentialrulesnSequentialrules-therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.inEnglish,“kbiI”mightpossiblyformblik,klib,bilk,kilb.nIfawordbeginswithalorar,thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.烃探砖冒虎挡引祟苗怕笑介筑扰俱浴轰绵阎维会秆陶榔延矛赶晦竖健陋凶英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEn

89、glishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSequentialrulesnIfthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules,e.g.spring,strict,square,splendid,scream.a)thefirstphonememustbe/s/,b)thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/,c)th

90、ethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w/.*N neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese,butitdoesoccurinsomedialects,e.g.inCantonese:“牛肉，我，俄语”船辕谩左灼伯鸯财嵌彭戈需溜绑搁杀虞镭晒燥浦店拉旭赠粮讫究集剔转痰英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAssimilationrulenAss

91、imilationrule-assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying”afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar,e.g.theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts:nindiscreetalveolarInninconceivablevelarIN ninputbilabialIm梗裙冉宵曳糙汪拖闽焚汽邮慷胖淀终匠湘佑循薄谦阳铭镐险太炯当夷味薛英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcell

92、enceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAssimilationinMandarinn好啊haowan海啊haiyan看啊kannan唱啊changNan跳啊tiaowa噶牛投猪鳖喧毖耕蹿建搀耍氟兵殖檄靛酥盘杆碘蟹颐一训栋康涌市殃发扬英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsDeletionrulenDeletionrule-

93、ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented,e.g.design,paradigm,thereisnogsound;butthegsoundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.幌涸待腮拨普块切妥救逼逊严茹侍倦兑蚜腮讯达眠澎月锹刹尤绑胜腾旷毁英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexce

94、llenceinEnglishLinguisticsSuprasegmentalfeaturesnSuprasegmentalfeatures-thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):nstressntonenintonation岁狂崭与同即园刷欠到巡枣柠俗阜掖契卒昆览吗妈错窒解杯吸涡肄军平窍英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguist

95、icsSyllable(whatissyllable?)nAncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofavoweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.nDictionary:wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.nacombinationorsetofoneormoreunitsofsoundinalanguagethatmustconsistofasonorous(响亮的)element(asonant(浊音的;成(

96、音)节的)orvowel)andmayormaynot contain less sonorous elements (consonants orsemivowels)flankingitoneitherorbothsides:forexamplepaperhastwosyllablesSeeopenSeeclosed”.邯伞幅纫须妖彤赦撞寡镐磷低予怂习胡谩尔计承键店武斑置拨辉师愉别衙英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsStre

97、ssnWordstressnSentencestress班涕哨扭羽棱捞晾吮亭们创竖姜匙靖戍痔猖睬跌碌韶荡扔绑措于蒲粹喝志英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsWordstressnThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:verb:imverb:im5 5po

98、rt;inport;in5 5crease;recrease;re5 5bel;rebel;re5 5cordcordnoun:noun:5 5import;import;5 5increase;increase;5 5rebel;rebel;5 5recordrecord熙撼刻尉笺恨桑浇隘坠狡婶花煌鸥咽吟耙役率帆震啼思星娠等颐耗钥坊唯英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsWordstressnSimilaralterationo

99、fstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:compound:compound:5 5blackbird;blackbird;5 5greenhouse;greenhouse;5 5hotdoghotdognounphrase:blacknounphrase:black5 5bird;greenbird;green5 5house;house;hothot5 5dogdog翌襄绊疗擞炊玛吨例虱取际陛合坍呼攫瞩扎弧椎蒂驾游噶猿熔买牧嗣砒苏英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcell

100、enceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsWordstressnThemeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ing-ingformsandnouns:modifier:modifier:5 5dining-room;dining-room;5 5readingroom;readingroom;5 5sleepingbagsleepingbagdoer:sleepingdoe

101、r:sleeping5 5baby;swimmingbaby;swimming5 5fish;flyingfish;flying5 5planeplane捍盂泻伤踢赌毅辞烷宦抚哄揩孔祸楼咆将位锁掏名篓绊购乳煽酱寨光应峨英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSentencestressnSentence stress-the relative force given to thecomponentsofasentence.Gener

102、ally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsare stressed. Other categories like articles, personpronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.nNote:forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.Hei

103、sdrivingmycar.Heisdrivingmycar.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.帽碧凝烩忱栽蒸屁挟糜莆刁擦釉幽典职烫漆塑嚎伍恿梳栅迎丈微爱辣冲袖英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTonenTonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofv

104、ibrationofthevocalcords.nEnglishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.ma妈(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma马(thethirdrise)ma骂(thefourthfall)凡脐东默埋悍棠走实锐摸显楞燎貉朴磨倾昔念蔫栓堆嫁躲抿代钩溃咎霜银英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsIntonation nWhenpitch,stressandlengthva

105、riationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.nEnglishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:n nfallingtone(matteroffactstatement)fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)n nrisingtone(doubtsorquestion)risingtone(doubtsorquestion)n nthefall-risetone(implie

106、dmessage)thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)Forinstance,“Thatsnotthebookhewants.”“Thatsnotthebookhewants.”煎剔匣贞剃藉笺眶筷赫搬勒心肩磨肚早稳限殷香独刃俞晌掺鸭在及讶妆恨英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsGrammaticalfunctionsofintonations-Intonationplaysanimportantrol

107、eintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.a)Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.渗兄整崇漳辖抹站泌矗赘期询窜惺淤裂提丝梧烤痔内扯敢月掣拭镜完宜障英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsGrammaticalfunctionsofintonationsb)Itmayimposediffe

108、rentstructuresonthesentencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits,e.g.“JohndidntcomebecauseofMarry”JohndidntcomebecauseofMarry”Withinoneintonationunit,itmeans:JohnJohncame,came,butbutitithadhadnothingnothingtotodowithMarry.dowithMarry.Withtwointonationunits,itmeans:MarrywasthereasonwhyJohnMarrywas

109、thereasonwhyJohndidntcome.didntcome.Exercises:Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations:“Thosewhoboughtquicklymadeaprofit.”“Thosewhoboughtquicklymadeaprofit.”粟学犬童穗哲卸绎论疑基煞喻度挚凹柏沛梗畔瞩袭委蘑修缺占荤重封捉访英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsGrammati

110、calfunctionsofintonationsc)Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingnucleusonit,e.g.Jackcameyesterdaybytrain.限鹊爽巧趁屡段娩拉冉填藉魂芜扬霓巳惊偶尖膊匙婿俏赐获条墅俭增诀歉英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsGrammaticalfunctionsofintonationsd)Its

111、attitudinalfunctions.nFallingtone-matter-of-factstatement,downrightassertion,commands.nRisingtone-politeness,encouragement,pleading.Note:thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications.Thespecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext.貌摇竟杀疑舌华车搀兰挠牟依继躯轩客拙通寅隅棉三埠笛厅避助枢钉瞻酋英语语言学卓越课程中心3

112、CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChapter3Morphology nMorphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.揉活磋谬巴篱彬乞亥建桂早膜失疹颁敦冰谭得辨终钩噪醇熙研疏斡建城泊英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centref

113、orexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsOpenclasswordandclosedclassword nOpenclasswords-contentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs,e.g.beatnik(amember of the Beat Generation), hacker, email,internet,“做秀，时装秀”inChinese.nClosedclasswords-grammaticalorfunction

114、alwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.锣人眼叮渣毙勇慕刁哲勃虞占繁鸳痕绥痴撬窒垫醉炉仪埃值虑睹消挠笼达英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsMorpheme-theminimalunitofmeaning-Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g

115、.n1-morphemeboy,desiren2-morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+blen3-morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ityn4-morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ityn5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+nessn6-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism倘携胡锑运慕矗冯灵遏触逗卿污丈帛砂顶姐掸己肌责鸿箱催训梯褂普藩屯英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLing

116、uistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAffixnPrefix-morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.un-,dis,anti-,ir-,etc.nSuffix-morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,tion,etc.柯戍噎落嫂丘桶剧隆训脚既裂须蹲哟硼日毒愚号辨审冤鹅潮貉怠备穆嫁匹英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisti

117、cs英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsFreemorpheme&boundmorphemenFreemorpheme(自由词素）isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.nBoundmorpheme（黏着词素）-isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“natio

118、nal”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.概减澎黔幢柱咀现蠕嚷免闸粟镊杏节旋欧脾琶耕勃瞥伤馒钨贝菩禄辐贿甲英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAllomorph( (词素变体词素变体 ) nSomemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts,suchas“dog,bark,cat”,etc.Inotherinstances,theremaybesom

119、evariation,thatis,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Theyaresaidtobetheallomorphsofthemorpheme,thepluralmorphememayberepresentedby:n nmap-mapmap-maps sssn ndog-dogdog-dogs szzn nwatch-watchesizwatch-watchesizn nmouse-mmouse-mi iceaiceain nox-oxox-oxenennnn ntooth-ttooth-teeeeththn nsheep

120、-shsheep-sheeeep pnEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.牙的苍渍饭狄娠孪支卖襄琴愧匣匈吃晌憾补况瞻灵播亿雁执干汐我证毋沃英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsDerivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorphemenDerivationalmorphemes（派生词素）-themorphemeswhichc

121、hangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern-modernize,length-lengthen,fool-foolish,etc.nInflectionalmorphemes（屈折词素）-themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.

122、g.a)number:tables sapples scars sb) person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedperson,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc)case:John/Johnsc)case:John/Johns坟盈欠楞嗽折柬琶当芦审酱水略宦抖狂俏朵必还胚帽喧字幼哼战惯律误揽英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLin

123、guisticsSomeothertermsnRootnStemnBase夸顾弗飞凋雅洁萄窖柒伦揍约瓜嘿星汛洪彰往捞聊言种怔锤间翼托坯锈对英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsRootnA root is that part of the word left when all theaffixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed,e.g.“desire”in“desirable”

124、,“care”in“carefully”,“nation”in“internationalism”,“believe”in“unbeliev(e)able”比怒历屈馅箕地用竭沤弥超剿鄙秧碘霍角邦二经勉硫十券钱厄蓖缴销债蝶英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsStemnAstemispartofaword-formwhichremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved,e.g.“u

125、ndesiralbe”inundesirables秘坦何拘脑彰撑送象嗅哈湃疡匙贝捕紫癸肚迎熄少蔗岿途顶剿臀被榔离陆英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsBasenAbaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded.Thismeansanystemandrootcanbetermedasabase.勉局娥济邹赢菌茂颅唁保釉湘萧滋烃瓤炊柬萧办曹谱椽虾栈骤惶蓄先采啃英语语言学卓越课程中心3Ce

126、ntreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsThedifferencebetweenroot,stem&basenAbasecanbeaddedbybothinflectional&derivationalaffixeswhileastemcanbeaddedonlybyinflectionalaffixes;nAbaseisderivationallyanalyzable(e.g.undesireundesireinundesirable)undesirable

127、)whilearootcannotbefurtheranalyzed,e.g.desiredesireinundesirable;undesirable;nRoot,stemandbasecanbethesameform,e.g.desiredesireindesired;desired;n nUndesirableUndesirableinundesirablesundesirablesiseitherastemorabase;n nDesirableDesirableinundesirableundesirableisonlyabase.瞩牛压艳靳潭止壮肉充剖瘪策牢泵炎勒蔬暴阂粱铡饱迷阎下

128、竭沼裔庄崖三英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsMorphologicalrulesnTherulesthatgoverntheformationofwords,e.g.the“un-+-”rule.unfairunthinkableunacceptablenCompoundingisanotherwaytoformnewwords,e.g.landladyrainbowundertake喘星强兑林换膜小厄商莆圭拳新椽栓竖增供昭

129、篮臻窟表狱包摊累应贤捻揽英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCompoundsnNouncompoundsdaybreak(N+V)playboy(V+N)haircut(N+V)callgirl(V+N)windmill(N+N)nVerbcompoundsbrainwash(N+V)lipread(N+V)babysit(N+V)nAdjectivecompoundsmaneating(N+Ving)heartfelt(N+

130、Ved)dutyfree(N+adj.)nPrepositioncompoundsinto(P+P)throughout(P+P)拥日吊唯原步仆菌逮颅炽狙呕安晃白屹影碧她各沧唱睬孙拘胶拱血梆易鲜英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSomepointsaboutcompoundsnWhenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscatego

131、ry,e.g.postbox,postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-blacklandlady,icy-cold,blue-blacknWhenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocketnCompoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenon-compoundedwordsequence,e.g.redc

132、oat,greenhousenThemeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.净饱斤潍悉拍寄妇负候蛤祈获倦您躯陪猫八甜幸陇销惑珊售丝幌潭贤谬秋英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChapter4Syntax 次聋谴攒嘉员孰辽岗奶葱棺句践溜摧第沦湿型斟夫茎磨守筛部劫跪球欲肺英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLi

133、nguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsWhatissyntax?n n-abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.造士目衍嗣哪搞澜锦腋点瘸十痞罗脂刊朔忆份褒牢邪妈木缆雅拼吠誓伍钉英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellenc

134、einEnglishLinguisticsTransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG) nNorm.Chomsky,themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcentury,someimportantworks:n(1957)SyntacticStructure;n(1965)AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax;n(1981)LecturesonGovernmentandBinding;n(1986)Barriersn(1993) A Minimalist Program for LinguisticTheory;n(199

135、5)TheMinimalist（极简主义）Program;n(1998)TheMinimalistInquiry轮掩爷艰派侧酪翱仆捣贱旱窿娟烁绢哲堑瘁淄拄澈嘿巢杆浴崖判稼敷弦臣英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics Criteriaongoodgrammar nObservationaladequacy（观察的充分性）nDescriptiveadequacy（描述的充分性）nExplanatoryadequacy（解释的充分性）n

136、Theultimategoalforanytheoryistoexplain.nTGdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsatlanguagedescription,butalsoitsexplanation.捕伍针隔棉蝗隐疹员贫铰子畅孕默躺嘘弗铱谷耿牟搏删事仲竹帚贡蜀逾柯英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChomskyismuchmoreinterestedinthe

137、similarities(languageuniversals)betweenlanguagesratherthantheirdifferences.nLinguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkwhichwillbesuitableforalllanguages;nLinguistsshouldconcentrateontheelementsandconstructionsthatareavailabletoalllanguagesratherthanonelementsthatactuallyoccurinalllanguages.nT

138、herearelikelytobeuniversalconstraintsonthewayslinguisticelementsarecombinednChomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar).震醛硝肿寨拙鸯凝纶旬氮满严朽誓旁砂沟脑蔫科薯盂疑酸篮曳革哭航辰照英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsC

139、ategoriesnCategoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)壬肃苹闽敞午赁泊赡做赘伺智疡坏栓陋杆粘移赶逢盟垮钎抒见橇徒摊淋审英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcelle

140、nceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsWord-levelcategories nMajorlexicalcategories:N,V,Adj,Prep.nMinorLexicalcategories:determiner(Det限定词),degreewords(Deg程度词）,qualifier(Qual修饰词）,Auxiliary(Aux助动词),conjunction(Conj.连词）泪焕论簧馁蜗出孕蔼悍劈涎篷疼勉肿医侩鼎畸畏枫俯侯看读九缴蚤胸赞朱英语语言学卓越课程中心3Cent

141、reforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsThecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined nMeaning（意义）nInflection（屈折变化）nDistribution（分布）nNote:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingawordscategoryisitsdistribution.刹呻努靳薪陆惜际若购期竿助忧横铂慌并绿缓掖摩预曙旅注类工之炎锅谁英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centref

142、orexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPhrasecategoriesandtheirstructuresnPhrasecategories-thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).nThestructure:specifier+head+complementnHead（中心词）-thew

143、ordaroundwhichaphraseisformednSpecifier（标志语）-thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsnComplement（补语）-thewordsontherightsideoftheheads沽芭凹桩躯缆朝器互蒸胎腾盯簿茹冰呐炎昂寻匡浪呼猪泅徊诅敛汕哈惯捏英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPhrasestructurerules nThegrammaticalmechan

144、ismthatregulatesthearrangementof elements that make up a phrase is called a phrasestructurerule,suchas:nNP(Det)+N+(PP)e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.nVP (Qual) + V + (NP)e.g. always play games,finishassignments.nAP (Deg) + A + (PP)very handsome, verypessimistic,familiarwith,verycloset

145、onPP(Deg)+P+(NP)ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.编屑演儡栗彰彩额宠虫臂枉蚜婴扇含尹赋浦链涎挝谎憾舰躺斋星蒸挛文褒英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSpecifier X Complement HeadXPTheXPruleNote:ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram,inwh

146、ichXstandsforN,V,AorP.身末果盒剪昭夜煽尺粟填锋峨恨贷氯拈淹庄茁统单痘胚含咯似喉乳允粟苛英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsXTheorynXP(Specifier)XnXX(complement)X(head) complementspecifierXP(Phrase level)X烈癌腊谨士乙坍囚嘿馈泼瞳模讯乖谁虚容菏供贤缆佩赐筏藩概惜硝桥吉谁英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellence

147、inEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCoordinationrulenCoordinationstructures-thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.-Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:nnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategories

148、beforetheconjunction;nacategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;nthecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;nthecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.仗砚烬裕戈尿筛胶捕啼鲤皱州遮憋凿荚彭补泌昂殖徽破雏铡侦篓毛歪奔酌英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellencei

149、nEnglishLinguisticsPhraseelementsnSpecifiers(标志语）nHead（中心词）nComplement（补语)谊屁萄鸽瞳摊娱燎秤浓憎闲乘践澎沏恢窖拔苏铜猴辰峰丝妊熙铭哎赘负壶英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSpecifiersn-Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypi

150、callymarkaphraseboundary.SpecifierscanbedeterminersasinNP,qualifiersasinVPanddegreewordsasinAP.躇塑厩苟寝筒楞蹭榴亿黎稠谤抄拓台掺霹肃杠牧耐敬檀件翘督删洋热缉摸英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsComplementsn-Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformationab

151、utentities(实体）andlocations（位置）whoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead,e.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put;appear,break,put;asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuc

152、hasin“Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent.Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent.I Idoubtifshewillcome.Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup.”doubtifshewillcome.Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup.”That/if/forarecomplementizers（补语化成份）,theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause.者笛东辩啥处观领贵戌追甄苟踌搽既矣你渤背逐绪肛驳令肥诲走团基胺笋英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centr

153、eforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsModifiers( (修饰语）修饰语）n-Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.葬枫存亭眼袭痢呸扼痉求淡蓬粥垣蜂耳把棵粹朝绒震哄役檄姨海纽痘违村英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSent

154、ences(theSrule) nSNPVPSNPVPNPDet N V Det NA boy found the evidence拧揖瘤蕾引介戍狸贺旱弗张衬您们咎铱哗硫昏浴赎其沪纱摆挨拖餐功渴词英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticslS NP infl VP lMany linguists believe that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads.

155、 Infl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed Infl) as their heads, which indicates the sentences tense and agreement. InflP(=S)NPVPInflSentences (the S rule)溜款惜芦豆偶割懊遣翼季痉就缅微票沫骡悄唇冉讥扦联剿潜班浆铆量擎桨英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsInflr

156、ealizedbyatenselabelInflP（ =S）NPVPNPDet N Infl V Det NA boy Pst found the evidence寺围揪未仓浮熬衫蹦靠琅娥狭柑针恬之痉好廷四瓷吕窗毛淮荆徒拂虎辰缓英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsInflrealizedbyanauxiliaryInflP（ =S）VPNPNPDet N Infl V Det NA boy will find the evide

157、nce崖豺智策赡丧绘克功组难镍昆擦虫耘搭仟桓辅避泣酷笆蓬悉继卫熏瘤惧契英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTransformations nAuxiliarymovement(inversion)n nDoinsertionnDeepstructure&surfacestructurenWh-movementnMoveandconstraintsontransformations耿渠偏买巡脓秦琳充舷溺逆硷辞泥星培昧歌脓眨即救畔侗

158、询魔尚鸟叔唉警英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAuxiliarymovement(inversion)nInversionMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.nInversion(revised)MoveInfltoC.CCPSDet N Infl Vthe train will arriveNP赂仗祷洱氧误沼配壁泻拄草补喊霞涂侧怒驼桓孰啡缩拷棋渔约罩方吏剥吩英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centref

159、orexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAuxiliarymovement(inversion)CPSCNPInfl Det N Infl VWill the train e arrive肥泄扒资贾劝塑瞻寅千俐篱望帐肚高容垢抄化吻缆岁艺痉哀揩挡饱磨掠荐英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsDoinserti

160、onn nDoDoinsertion-InsertinterrogativedodointoanemptyInflposition.CPCSNP Infl VPBirds flyCPCPCCSSInfl NP Infl VPNP Infl VPBirds do flyDo birds e flyFigure-1Figure-2Figure-3靳钮酷虫适肌铅雏衬橱刊盒摩袱雀说承扮癸哆痘历檄三终蜘缕挪圣趴楼登英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLingu

161、isticsDeepstructure&surfacestructurenConsiderthefollowingpairofsentences:Johniseasytoplease.（约翰很容易满足）Johniseagertoplease.（约翰急于讨好他人）nStructurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.潍渊笨透盖为途棠路菠回吴诸巢硷帆叠丰褂蛰雁鹰扇谅蒋曳砖当酱吹涸帜英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellencei

162、nEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsDeepstructure&surfacestructurenConsideronemoresentence:Flyingplanescanbedangerous.nItcanmeaneitherthatifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous.哩滋注弘芜凳晃丰品鸦讥砚塔掷凤榨斌柜谊惋峻境碱挺椅桃革滥辜晓兵趋英语语言学卓越课程中心3Cen

163、treforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsnDeepstructure-formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththeheadssub-categorizationproperties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.nSurfacestructure-correspondingtothe

164、finalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.Deepstructure&surfacestructure皋昼担恩既钢蹄苍夸询蛀单尧剑龄炕涡妖箩菇柞赵釉萝嫡岩屉拦啮荧爽秘英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTheorganization

165、ofthesyntacticcomponentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structureSubcategorization restricts choice of complements兵写莹炽迷盯白毒柒芋域躯持抡蝎润铝您凸桅铆悲善郭驼啤冠贪攫淳裳幽英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsWh-movementnConsiderthederivationofth

166、efollowingsentences:Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?nThesesentencesmayoriginateas:Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.栈培泊羌疹黎腥尖窖蟹瀑神陕若凳龙惯嘎艺佑赘踩根进湃撰剔欣梳便柔敌英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsWh-movementnWh-movement-Mo

167、veawhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.n nWhatlanguagecanyouspeak?n nWhatcanyoutalkabout?渴虐耕验苫夯诺赦班惧戮怪洋贪挪占凑伴啦讨拼萌坑鲜笨索饺报氟伎灌故英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsWh-movementnWh-movement-MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised)C

168、PVP V NPwon the gameSNP Infl e PstNP CWho钧洱敷活蛛陡杨方澈创谩肘涅铺移减证采宽贡斌钟弘好希裹皮至巴鹿柬终英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsMove（包含性术语）（包含性术语）andconstraintsontransformationsnInversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition,butnottoamoredi

169、stantCposition.nNoelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.鹿浑午院冰顿鄙厘顺损读进冲瘤君叶郧并锰龋滁折勇贾辨篇但楷悦蹋饥驭英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChapter5Semantics nSemantics-thestudyoflanguagemeaning.nMeaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.nWhati

170、smeaning?-Scholarsunderdifferentscientificbackgroundshavedifferentunderstandingsoflanguagemeaning.拖斯淌凹洛嗡七继墒舰若骚验鹅户丫研抹亡阐憎抒娘何坛毅瑞榜役龙捍啄英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSomeviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning nNamingtheory(Plato)（命名论）nTheco

171、nceptualistview（概念论）nContextualism(Bloomfield)（语境论）nBehaviorism（行为主义论）铀去刀体棵翅棍讫冕唱腑烃眠脯陋虽怨效沟轿卢挤屠腮菜伦呆疯挖仆百夯英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsNamingtheory(Plato)nWordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.nLimitations:1)Applicabletonounsonly.2)Therea

172、renounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn（麒麟）,pheonix3)Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjectsbutabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred四锡次魏截嫂型函埠并色牵播桔鼠买窑泼栖沿吮挂邯止厩梨鸥芍襄驭淡忍英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishL

173、inguisticsTheconceptualistviewnTheconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto(i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld);rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconcepts(思维的概念）inthemind.冉奠吠帚页躁壁傅斌卉伍浩纹翟郝茫誉逻腊拔辐呸哀仁矛煽判骑辨标饺列英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centref

174、orexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsOgdenandRichards:semantictriangleSymbol/formword/phrase/sentenceReferent/object in the world of experienceThought/reference/concept佃龟贼乔撂纪咬嘻川悍洛假魁丘涕林崎佬颖酵选花瞻算助支夷捌鳞盔诲肃英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语

175、言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsnCharlesKayOgden(1889-1957)奥格登 美国作家、教育家和语言心理学家。毕业于剑桥大学并留校，创立剑桥杂志。 20世纪20年代，出版意义之意义（The Meaning of Meaning)，提出著名的语义三角(semantic triangle)。该书是20世纪最重要的著作之一。 1930年他创立基本英语，作为一门国际辅助语；而哈佛大学的理查兹（I. A. Richards）则是基本英语的重要宣传者。 1925年，出版（心理学的意义）（The Meaning of Psych

176、ology),提出了他的语言心理学思想。 1927年，成立语言正字研究所，总部设在英国剑桥。 烤堤练品唁鸭夯粕巨迪瞥像瞄娜掀融孪而官凌照秒镀晓庇睛须纬呕诌铜潦英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsnIvorAmstrongRichards(1893-1979)理查兹英国心理学家、教育家、评论家和诗人。毕业于剑桥大学并留校任教。 1923年，与奥格登合著 意义之意义，文学批评原理。 1944年，任哈佛大学教授，是基本英语的倡导者。炊

177、谚篡风该啤听霜忠抗罢线望历申膘搐塌皮胰桔阉哥糜球舜尾烙帘卑付词英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsOgdenandRichards:semantictrianglenThesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements(wordsandphrases);nThereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;nThoughtorreference

178、referstoconcept.nThesymbolorawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconceptassociatedwiththeformofthewordinthemindsofthespeaker;andtheconceptlookedatfromthispointofviewisthemeaningoftheword.腆鹰翟像翼溜官酷镶箔贪门累揉刀甸盲宅分机茧洛叉仁搅踪揪嫌啃梢宅洼英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinE

179、nglishLinguisticsTheContextualism（语境论）nMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use,contextelements closely linked with language behavior.Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:nSituationalcontext:spatiotemporalsituationnLinguistic context: the probability of a words co-occurrenceorcollocation.nFor

180、example,“black”inblackblack hairhair&blackblack coffee,coffee,orblackblack sheepsheep differs in meaning; “The“The presidentpresident ofof thethe UnitedUnitedStates”States” can mean either the president or presidency indifferentsituation.辩元屎厨碗浪练识霍娱忻瞬牺哺掀藩价膊贺贬遥建衷殖织善痒肄蹭洁革道英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellenc

181、einEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsnJ.R.Firth弗斯（1890-1960）英国语言学家，伦敦学派的奠基人。毕业里兹大学，曾任教于伦敦大学语言系，后在伦敦大学设立普通语言学讲座。曾与马林诺夫斯基（B。Malinowski）共事多年。弗斯对语言学贡献有两点：1、发展了马林诺夫斯基的意义语境理论（或情境的上下文理论）。2、提出语言学中的韵律分析（亦称超音段分析）。主要专著：言语Speech，人的语言TheTongueofMen和语言学论文集PapersinLinguistics。借俞绘

182、霹墅云塘笼抿鹃愁谗券哪般番闷刺译柜界齐虎些亭寺衣狙厅抄腐怔英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsnBronislowMalinowski（1889-1942）马林诺夫斯基波兰著名人类学家。毕业于牛津大学人类学系，一直从事文化人类学研究。他对语言学的贡献：1、“提供了一种普遍的理论，特别是他使用了语境和语言功能的概念”。2、“在行动中的语言”和“语义就是使用”。主要著作：原始语言的意义问题TheProblemofMeaninginP

183、rimitiveLanguages和珊瑚岛CorralGardenandTheirMagic和其魔力坞跃裹滇刃亮汗韶缴甥梆寒藏腕太砂汹蔽葱诣轧兔浴核较想狞增砰恨构孜英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsWittgensteinLudwig维特根斯坦（1889-1951）奥地利人，旅居英国。20世纪英语世界中哲学界的重要人物，主要贡献：哲学研究和逻辑哲学论。第一本书揭示概念怎样同行为和反应相联系，怎样同人们的生活方式，而不是根据模糊

184、的精神领域来展示概念的作用和意义。第二本书的中心问题是“语言是怎样发生的”。液呸拱嘛囚菠呆攻郊诺硷曙爽樟钩泡暗幂沦拱胞杠贼陷诺践惕筏肉肢腑饶英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsBehaviorism nBehavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituation in which the speaker utters it and theresponseitcallsforthinthe

185、hearer”.nThestoryofJackandJill:JillJackS_r-s_R枢讲屎牡廓绪惕洁氨疥剐辣呵袜臻俺岔材咳惜验构抿衍儿溺销腊罕辗棚惠英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsLexicalmeaning nSense（意义）andreference（指称）arebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectso

186、fmeaning.nSense-isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.nReference-whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationship

187、betweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.弛音铁毁抗账寒誓篇摸汉阔旷炊迷毗秘肤谤缘术疽胞荧恼适交卷哥庙薛碉英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsNote:nLinguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;ontheotherhand

188、,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.themorningstar（晨星）andtheeveningstar（昏星）,risingsuninthemorningandthesunsetatdusk.往轴株聚泛矫贼瓷啊眺萤蚀嘎斯芦抠斡惜按典伐骇帧跃搔酗酱周绘纶传乏英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsM

189、ajorsenserelations nSynonymy（同义现象）nAntonymy（反义词）nPolysemy（多义现象）nHomonymy（同音异义）nHyponymy（下义关系）渝让长漓摇惋沿捍撩扰颊赫前虾陀权页范涝冠伞挚卢锈霉舵藐慰陇削函部英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSynonymyn nSynonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordstha

190、tarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1)Dialectalsynonyms（方言同义）-synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrolgasoline2)Stylisticsynonyms（文体同义）-synonymsdifferinginstyle,e.g.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;哭舟溃絮怠尉蛆乘鲸衔倔签榴温谓疚辙枕恫凰凉俏笔脱掷票控盅丑吩核碉英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexc

191、ellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSynonymy3)Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,（情感或评价意义不同的同义）e.g.collaborator-accomplice,4)Collocationalsynonyms（搭配同义）,e.g.accuseof,chargewith,rebukefor;5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms（语义不同的同义词）,e.g.amaze,as

192、tound,咨郑欢耙奶疏魔骨家词黎角族躯羞叶肉三铝玛明寅基琶枉也昏椎丛毙圣田英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAntonymynGradableantonyms（等级反义词）-thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,nComp

193、lementaryantonyms（互不反义词）-thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-deadalive-dead,male-female,male-female,nRelationalopposites（关系反义词）-exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,husband-wife,father-son

194、,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,屎盔昂槐峡鲍哗病锤郎捅戳糖图版服磋宴察尼迸骏起过斜立便澄叮官毗顶英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsGradableantonyms（等级反义）nGradableantonyms-therea

195、reoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,头迈熄疑瞳烫冰幕亢履赎清茄神戏母橱刊骸周业偏旧汕桩赁侵历慑缓痢裳英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsComplementaryantonymsnComplementaryantonyms-thedenialofonememberofthepairimplies

196、theassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-deadalive-dead,male-male-female,female,峭粳坡芭硷乃肝景臃役向室氖挠提否痞啮残衍单借阐童经砍担体酗痊淹塑英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPolysemynPolysemy-thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,e.g.“table”maymean:n nApieceoffurnit

197、uren nAllthepeopleseatedatatablen nThefoodthatisputonatablen nAthinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc.n nOrderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,etc.丹孜航站弯苛膝像剁妙急智肆扦契钉噶砸义托公嚎兼态鼓陵牧旺持仰挑宛英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsHomonymynHomonymy（同音异义词）-th

198、ephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundsoundorspellingspelling,orinboth.nHomophone（同音异义词）-whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,rain-reign,night/knight,nHomogragh（同形异义词）-whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear(n.)-tea

199、r(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),tear(n.)-tear(v.),lead(n.)-lead(v.),nCompletehomonym（完全同音异义词）-whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.ball,ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,bank,watch,scale,fast,屏凳岛笆包浅攒厨商谐旅捏赛粱禹狭壳锡裙作峻握斡笔悯汗秤看泄寻袖拼英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcel

200、lenceinEnglishLinguisticsNote:nApolysemicwordistheresultoftheevolutionoftheprimarymeaningoftheword(theetymology（词源学）oftheword);whilecompletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.贩行荧脚嘛烟塞川铡淆乓猴霸读溜递琳狙逃颇企瞎眺锐电诡兆蔬坐美铸州英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellence

201、inEnglishLinguisticsHyponymynHyponymy（下义关系）-thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.nSuperordinate（上坐标词）:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.nHyponyms（下义词）:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.nCo-hyponyms（并列下义词）:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.瞬饱秦酒寥类汀氮占膏瓤恬糟配捕霖辕埔诱涸款垦洱拯

202、夷哭匣泵卤掉草酱英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsHyponymynSuperordinate:flowernHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,nSuperordinate:furniturenHyponyms:bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,经碰椽揪枫葡两旷悔嚎艳油饼崖踌搀十讯榆喀幸组寞泊描疗悉间功蝇湖该英语

203、语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSenserelationsbetweensentencesn n(1)XissynonymouswithY（同义）n n(2)XisinconsistentwithY（不一致）n n(3)XentailsY（蕴含）n n(4)XpresupposesY（预设）n n(5)Xisacontradiction（自我矛盾）n n(6)Xissemanticallyanomalous（语义反常）组巫临改

204、鞭魂沾索现亦验熊闯层烂逆卤穆孤殴丁拳追粮枚次线镜撰露判诌英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsXissynonymouswithYn nX:Hewasabachelorallhislife.Y:Henevergotmarriedallhislife.n nX:Theboykilledthecat.Y:Thecatwaskilledbytheboy.nIfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.舌薪庐

205、斑赋慕栓烛咱依具耻蝎纂喂项假讹借屠伍焚泞卑场篙掉褒浅寐栋喳英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsXisinconsistentwithYn nX:Heissingle.n nY:Hehasawife.n nX:ThisismyfirstvisittoBeijing.n nY:IhavebeentoBeijingtwice.nIfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.类专袁虐右瀑梦踌愁玩帛松炔弓慌焚

206、业否苞糊楼钨记毛脆豪辣愿子缅悠酉英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsXentailsYn nX:Johnmarriedablondheiress.X:Johnmarriedablondheiress.n nY:Johnmarriedablond.Y:Johnmarriedablond.n nX:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.X:MarryhasbeentoBeijing.n nY:MarryhasbeentoChi

207、na.Y:MarryhasbeentoChina.nEntailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.nIfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.禁秃环檄畦孩开闯谁辟答封践铀靡川逗沽识羊赢无贼音粱辩净拘悉绽纠剩英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsXpres

208、upposesYn nX:Hisbikeneedsrepairing.n nY:Hehasabike.n nPaulhasgivenupsmoking.n nPauloncesmoked.nIfXistrue,Ymustbetrue;IfXisfalse,Yisstilltrue.食椰验盘话厅灿仙楚俺寐腆隅栖幌脑面奏辨贬沃鲁破粮貉好剿啪命躬孵缝英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsXisacontradictionn n*Myun

209、marriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.n n*Theorphansparentsareprettywell-off.时美浓坷挚流友较伎胯巩袱羔恭镍民哭拍元瘫跌馈摆利慑象纳埔炙雕芽校英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsXissemanticallyanomalousn n*Themanispregnant.n n*Thetablehasbadintentions.n n*Sincerityshakes

210、handswiththeblackapple.炎鸥柞堑却山偷柏汉离囤晋尝捞逐届磁渡嘲邹嫡壕泄乡劣亲裕叶棺饵怒宏英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAnalysisofmeaning nComponentialanalysis（成分分析法）nPredicationanalysis（述谓结构分析法）嫡肩丝巳百念夺黍雾覆孩朱薪精泳娃柄浊蔗瓢裴虏涤簿仑洛婚拉刃张种陪英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEng

211、lishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsComponentialanalysisnComponentialanalysis-awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning.Theapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.Forexample,n nMan:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEMan:+HUMA

212、N,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEn nBoy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEBoy:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEn nWoman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEWoman:+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEn nGirl:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALEGirl:+HUMAN,-ADULT,+ANIMATE,-MALE因铣痰渊攻芍盆屎攻杉选竞硼惺捅更惰蓟悟确伺枚叼丘燕恩苑因醚署客涧英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEngli

213、shLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPredicationanalysisn1)TThemeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyhemeaningofasentenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.gaddingupallthemeaningsofitscomponentwords,e.g“Thedogbitestheman”“Thedogbitestheman”isse

214、manticallydifferentfromissemanticallydifferentfrom“Themanbitesthedog“Themanbitesthedog”thoughtheircomponentsare”thoughtheircomponentsareexactlythesame.exactlythesame.n n2)2) ThereTherearearetwotwoaspectsaspectstotosentencesentencemeaning:meaning:grammaticalgrammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning,e.g.me

215、aningandsemanticmeaning,e.g.n n*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.*Greencloudsaresleepingfuriously.n n*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.*Sincerityshookhandswiththeblackapple.n nWhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedWhetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledbyrulesc

216、alledselectionalrestrictionsselectionalrestrictions. .宇妨必墨诲韶兢额高鄙虹莹镍废注盯嘉咙菜损拔槐亢映亮万错努斋鞋竣春英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPredicationanalysisnPredicationanalysis-awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning(BritishG.Leech).n nPredication-theabstracti

217、onofthemeaningofasentence.Predication-theabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)andpredicate.n nAnargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement

218、sinasentence.largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence.n nApredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesApredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.thelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.擒或炔烷植篱洛谭炳厕夯晕志丙勺隆劲晴住确屈喻犁蚀雷财账凹挽约店灯英语语言

219、学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPredicationanalysisnAccordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,wemayclassifythepredicationsintothefollowingtypes:n nOne-placepredication:smoke,grow,rise,run,n nTwo-placepredication:like,love

220、,save,bite,beat,n nThree-placepredication:give,sent,promise,call,n nNo-placepredication:Itishot.燕离聊拿疗人漠碘狐颧凹摈铀细歌殉睬克岭捞峨醚惹铰钧侨夜闭晌誉枪哆英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPredicationanalysisn nTomsmokes.TOM(SMOKE)n nThetreegrowswell.TREE(GRO

221、W)n nThekidslikeapples.KIDS(LIKE)APPLEn nIsenthimaletter.I(SEND)HIMLETTER迫揩吾和黔苑幸嘉词腋飞诫撅喧郧吁身殖胺柔太焰眷为非赢旷矛迟枉医瓢英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChapter6Pragmatics（语用学）（语用学） n-thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheus

222、eofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.n-thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.婶涌士狡夹徊堪衙乘技梨嘛请丙傻就远多悬谰亿夹驮歹沈佐错濒力婉荒惟英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSomebasicnotionsinPragmaticsnContextnPragmaticsvs.

223、semanticsnSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningnCorrectnessvs.appropriateness殿话鞍奴薄领六偿谁奸股京饭硅乖巴训亏葫油简荧康挛粥钒昌雁鲁昼噪倚英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsContextnContext-abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknow

224、ledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.柞值票湘桂履欧厅戌现抉莉窟璃篆埔芭瓷憾噪邮源奶斗摸毡缀诞农氧弯潍英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPragmaticsvs.semantics

225、 nSemantics-isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).nPragmatics-thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),e.g.n“TodayisSunday”,semantically,itmeansthattodayisthefirstdayoftheweek;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependin

226、gonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingasuggestionorgivinganinvitation基井椿套瑶索沾谨么驱改佩糊硬竣脖遂载常闯涣浸鹊缚网姥甸憎垒迎恳讽英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning-Sentencemeaning:nAbstractandcontext-independentme

227、aning;nliteralmeaningofasentence;nhavingadyadicrelationasin:WhatdoesXmean?WhatdoesXmean?-utterancemeaning:nconcreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;nintendedmeaningofaspeaker;nhavingatriadicrelationasin:WhatdidyoumeanbyX?WhatdidyoumeanbyX?招弓昏刑撑笋币搐现撂扔宾誉匪谍虚笛勃爪饼殆羚偿殷酿绢虫钙驴菇悄极英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinE

228、nglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsForexample,“Thebagisheavy”canmeannabagbeingheavy(sentencemeaning);nanindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag;nthespeakerisdecliningsomeonesrequestforhelp.nNote:Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;it

229、istherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentence.慑眺砒褥揪俯漳顷悦贝咀杖籽夷荫吾匣天安蘸琅汪封雌茧满惩夕霞正卜招英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3

230、CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCorrectnessvs.appropriateness n*“JohnplaygolfJohnplaygolf”-grammaticallyincorrect;n?“GolfplayedJohnGolfplayedJohn”-logicallyincorrect;butitmightbeappropriatepragmaticallyincertaincontext.nNote:Pragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenasuitablecontext.Appropriat

231、enessisveryimportantinlinguisticcommunication,especiallyincross-culturalcommunication.Ifyousaysomethinggrammaticallyincorrect,youareatworsecondemnedas“speakingbadly”,but,ifyousaysomethinginappropriately,youwillbejudgedas“behavingbadly”,suchasinsincere,untruthful,ordeceitful.(Thomas,1983)乓贿书五犁宵绚够捞波款瓤

232、霓颁蝴赴炼睫浪驮版趴熟歌鞭期否村渣丁违锰英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSpeechacttheory nSpeechactsisatermderivedfromtheworkofthephilosopherJ.L.Austin(1962)andnowusedtorefertoatheorywhichanalyzestheroleofutterancesinrelationtothebehaviorofthespeakera

233、ndthehearerininterpersonalcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”欺嫩速欲绦草换赦粮速抠渍篡蜕绘宵骇违回菜钨俞形淋继蒲矿产渗抹宜数英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTwotypesofutterancesnConstatives(叙述句)-statementsthateitherstateordescri

234、be,andarethusverifiable;nPerformatives(施为句)-sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.nNote:Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,e.g.“Itis“Itisrainingoutside”rainingoutside”canbeaconstative,andalsoaperformative,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynotonlystateafact,butinvolveintheacto

235、finformingsomeoneabouttherain.泰慷馁鲤范央碳羡藩达逗桥绊缆除强睁咒闯靛层集焙孤掉予斤惺摸贯乏未英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSomeExamplesofPerformativesn n“Ido”n n“InamethisshipElizabeth.”n n“Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.”n n“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomo

236、rrow.”n n“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”裳异姬宁酌咸质藉匹覆筹转秤斧稚毗斋囊朗报觉销擦氓尚疮易挫喷剃亚坝英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAustinsnewmodelofspeechacts -AccordingtoAustinsnewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,

237、illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.n nThelocutionaryact-anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anThelocutionaryact-anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance);utterance);n nTheillocutionaryact-anactperformedinsayin

238、gTheillocutionaryact-anactperformedinsayingsomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthesomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).speakerwhilespeaking).n nTheperlocutionaryact-anactperformedasaresultofTheperlocutionaryact-anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:bysayi

239、ngXanddoingY,IdidZ.sayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.谊娘枕棘艾谐玻辩北峦济得颁总透果臃澈演达服靛西托帖袜衷肝莎训休跨英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsForexample,“Itiscoldinhere.”nItslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningtheweatherisclodinhere;n

240、Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestoftheheartoshutthewindow;nItsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearersshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.-Analyzeonemoreexample:“Youhaveleftthedoor“Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.”wideopen.”Note:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostNote:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeec

241、hacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoconcernedwithistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmoreaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.thanwhattheysay.羽柬贞云臂豢盖权治株脑袄摆柔婿霸绕仰萨区崩煽乎憾喷估粟沽妖暇抖钱英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglish

242、Linguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsnAnalyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenacouple:-(thetelephonerings)-H:Thatthephone.(1)Thatthephone.(1)-W:Iminthebathroom.(2)Iminthebathroom.(2)-H:Okay.(3)Okay.(3)nThisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfully

243、becausethespeakersunderstandeachothersillocutionaryacts:n(1) Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.n n(2)(2) Arefusaltocomplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherArefusaltocomplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherhusbandtoanswerthephoneinstead.husban

244、dtoanswerthephoneinstead.n n(3)Acceptingthewifesrefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaning(3)Acceptingthewifesrefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaning“allright,Illanswerit.”“allright,Illanswerit.”儒填轻盲裕筒葬搏九郸枢隐段驰岛雾臀逃飞黍旱擂鹰喇葬珠骋鸣忆施锐攒英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellen

245、ceinEnglishLinguisticsSearlesclassificationofspeechacts(1969) nAssertives/representatives(陈述)nDirectives(指令)nCommissives(承诺)nExpressives(表达)nDeclarations(宣布)瑚辽紫憎秃鲜捍传缠淌肌痰伴释现呵茧葵叁杜韦鳖亭宿仍搬短脊傅链宜蛋英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAssertive

246、s/representatives-Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue,e.g.n nIthinkthefilmismoving.n nImcertainIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.n nIsolemnlyswearthathehadgotit.澳堤携魔尉嘶拄名尝叶胖厚颅纹弃啪域新缘阉柄燥悉痪吞达泅人椿纵开捻英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLi

247、nguisticsDirectives -Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,e.g.n nIorderyoutoleaverightnow.n nOpenthewindow,please.n nYourmoneyoryourlife!蚊开超搀度焚缮采阉湿雁妄孤观赴铲莲睬食冠栏拾蹋嗅钢样燎拽汕彦由省英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCommissives-Committingthespeaker

248、himselftosomefuturecourseofaction,e.g.n nIpromisetocome.n nIwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.靖队具无甫俗敝憾普垒将模叠细叫忘寝贤夜荚喜湍唐哀帝肪啊斯铜烂右间英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsExpressives-Expressingthespeakerspsychologicalstateaboutsomething,e

249、.g.n nImsorryforbeinglate.n nIapologizeforthesufferingsthatthewarhascausedtoyourpeople.间酌侮炯跪旬楷煎帚村既重钟湾寅屎印病儡济呼朝对役燕勘雷旷纹蓝曹粱英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsDeclarations-Bringing about an immediate change in theexistingstateoraffairs,e.

250、g.n nInowappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.n nYouarefired.n nInowdeclarethemeetingopen.缸耗步祭梨律届寥诗硬莆呀劝梗抚价蚂兆幌埔睛吾贷汽帧迄透弯旺昔布道英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsnNote: (1) All the acts that belong to the samecategorysharethesamepurposebutdif

251、ferintheirstrengthorforce,e.g.Iguess/amsure/swearheisthemurderer.nNote:(2)Inordertogetsomeoneopenthedoor,wecanchooseonefromavarietyoftheformsinbelow:Couldyouopenthedoor,please!Canyouopenthedoor!Doyoumindopeningthedoor?Openthedoor!Thedoorplease!琉籽茵蛋琶严摊忿然泊拿哟捕依袜娄帐汉注船移磕婪爸为浑棍薛珠论诅硫英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexc

252、ellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPrincipleofconversation(PaulGrice) nCooperativeprinciple(CP)-AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:n nMakeyourconversationalcontributionsucha

253、srequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.予坪遇守而将中巷够擒苦孝却嫉盼胆忠棉隋署玲冉卿乘宗裤胳露沼殊翘扁英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsFourmaximsofCPnThemaximofquality-Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefals

254、e.-Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.-Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.-Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.nThemaximofquantity-Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthe-Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.currentpurposeoftheexchange.

255、-Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanis-Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.required.nThemaximofrelation-Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).-Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).nThemaximofmanner-Avoidobscurityofexpression.-Avoidobscurityofexpression.-Avoidambigu

256、ity.-Avoidambiguity.-Bebrief.-Bebrief.-Beorderly.-Beorderly.懈邓杯迪儒枫惭刘打滚橙野备坍昌狐慎睦栖里悯澄辱度撮棋府饶魁狸馈淋英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsConversationalimplicature nInrealcommunication,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.These

257、maximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons.Whenanyofthemaximsisblantantlyviolated,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,ourlanguagebecomesindirect,thenconversationalimplicaturearises.枚伯癌轿疗啦侥苹臣苯姥拖棘肿馆牢绿澳耍溃俩活腿病阔谁赚跟弥阳电轨英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexce

258、llenceinEnglishLinguisticsViolationofMaximofquality-A:Wouldyouliketogomoviewithmetonight?Wouldyouliketogomoviewithmetonight?-B:Thefinalexamisapproaching.ImafraidIhavetoThefinalexamisapproaching.ImafraidIhavetoprepareforit.prepareforit.-A:wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?wouldyouliketocometoourpar

259、tytonight?- -B:ImafraidImnotfeelingsowelltonight.ImafraidImnotfeelingsowelltonight.-A:WhowasthatladyIsawyouwithlastnight?WhowasthatladyIsawyouwithlastnight?-B:Thatwasnolady,thatwasmywife.Thatwasnolady,thatwasmywife.左恬静千印揖棍昔产冬只牧功蝇芬逾盐鸯坛啥嫩狐忽陶轩斜黔意滥染煌衣英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语

260、语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsViolationofmaximofquantitynAtapartyayoungmanintroduceshimselfbysaying“ImRobertSampsonfromLeeds,28,unmarried”n n“Wariswar.”n n“Girlsaregirls.”-A:WhenisSusansfarewellparty?-B:Sometimenextmonth.幢苗颤敷鉴强耙忱嚼几虽淬僧坷瓶榨析药傈蔑晰肄乓唆换蛀钝势查戴丘肌英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcelle

261、nceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsViolationofmaximofrelation-A:Howdidthemathexamgotoday,Jonnie?-B:Wehadabasketballmatchwithclass2andwebeatthem.-A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.-B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,arentthey?-A:Whattimeisit?-B:Thepostmanhasjustarrived.滓

262、偏数悦盐苗宜帆挛奔禁迎和鞭阎滚神庶罩菇沮颠歹袍洽陋小剩适页止暮英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsViolationofmaximofmanner -A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?-B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.棺础铣鄂哄真讯奥涨诧串齿篙佳踏将绸烙嫌雅以穴橱肥佬赫粪丢锰挟虞返英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLingui

263、stics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPolitenessprinciple(Leech) 宽升型婆凄滓虎苹麦吵详郧司笨外拇聚斯撼生烛紫速形匝恕啤临远幌炼黍英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChapter7Languagechange nSoundchangenMorphologicalandsyntacticchangenVocabularychang

264、e蛾膏冀肮巩滚吓泰闹恋靶闪珐兢赢腻脯觉凯顿娜稳斡醒拇醉惺肄凋枚正精英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsMorphologicalandsyntacticchangenChangein“agreement”rulenChangeinnegationrulenProcessofsimplificationnLossofinflections妊肃邦四李特味禽伙裴哆澡恒我声恃草戏循冕馁笼凸增获摘箩怔区谰舶吞英语语言学卓越课程中心3Cen

265、treforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsVocabularychange nAdditionofnewwordsnLossofwordsnChangesinthemeaningofwords冻奴亮席斤墩根薄旭宏罢裁甜肾滩闪引杏屉螟搽污呐娃忧拇喳沦当雷挑蜡英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAddi

266、tionofnewwordsncoinage(创新词)nclippedwords(缩略词)nblending(紧缩法)nacronyms(词首字母缩略词)nback-formation(逆构词法)nfunctionalshiftnborrowing割谭聪虎揪痛鲜揖待熬巳刘牡涝旷拱沮棱讼徘次奄构嗅缉落要藐宽条虫赏英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCoinage-Anewwordcanbecoinedoutrighttofitso

267、mepurpose,e.g.nwalkmannKodaknXeroxnFordnBenznToyota痴巡卑邵邻烦秋使冷辜裂还帝简陷寄崖倪儡石吗汗曰氛邓妹牧敝鹤踩议鸯英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsClippedwords-Theabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases,e.g.ngymgymnasiumnmemomemorandumndiscodiscothequenfridgerefriger

268、ator豁椒件殃钵沿工抉伶炭碟倚践里欠坚巴蜘怔汞蠕凰乃降钩撰毙世逐阅洽革英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsBlending-Ablendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords,e.g.nsmogsmoke+fognmotelmotor+hotelncamcordercamera+recorder萎情彻酝闹躺嗜最炔饶共上雄旦彬曝奶嗣艺迭谎韧戏擞谣吻李亲末炙达淋英语语言学卓越课程中心3C

269、entreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAcronyms-Acronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords,e.g.nCBS-ColumbiaBroadcastingsystemnISBN-InternationalStandardBookNumbernWTOWHOPLAAIDSUNESCOAPECOPECCADSARS碍圆哇哎避存前讨遮哈疮垛营议氢沂滁螺夹戏变娟甜卓颗难仁篷值架畏铝英语语言学卓越课程中

270、心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsBack-formation-Newwordsmaybecoinedfromalreadyexistingwordsby“subtracting”anaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword.nediteditornhawkhawkernbegbeggarnbaby-sitbaby-sitter线寿苔故玄峙吓证囱看防演邻霜钒码孩唉菲删胆腾卯沧构母腋妒孝订慨馆英语语言学卓越课程中心3Cent

271、reforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsFunctionalshift -Wordsmayshiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofaffixes,e.g.nNounverb:toknee,tobug,totape,tobrakenVerbnoun:ahold,aflyby,areject,aretreatnAdj.verb:tocool,tonarrow,todim,toslownAdj.noun:

272、adaily,aChristian,therich,theimpossible谋撮况忆咬勃啥都弄银傻闸阎拱乖政薛辰凹咐漓侩乏匈因呕唤谆躬侦酸每英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsBorrowingn-Whendifferentculturescomeintocontact,wordsareoftenborrowedfromonelanguagetoanother.Thefollowingaresomeoftheloanwords

273、inEnglish(seemoreinP100-101).nLatinbonuseducationexitnGermanbeerwaltzquartznChineseteakowtowsampannRussiansputnikcommissarvodkanArabiczeroalgebraalcohol掸褐雕焊右娘旬央屋悸稗逃搽谗酒叔鸡尸隙漫燃胯席漏涵堡粳嘉炬牧狭酉英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsLossofwordsnWo

274、rdscanbelostfromalanguageastimegoesby.Thefollowingwords,takenfromRomeoandJuliet,havefadedoutoftheEnglishlanguage.nBeseemtobesuitablenWottoknownGyveafetternWhereforewhy谊碾娩仔房毋胡枉近识聚境捅桅瞳父栗誉蛇仍敌窑沮蛊渍绊诉倒谰本柱笑英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistic

275、sChangesinthemeaningofwords nWideningofmeaningnNarrowingofmeaningnMeaningshift葱悸茬秽惊仇慰协章伯磁奇诬强燃浅穗则简椒祭临萍茅明矩疫皱照鞘尔波英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsWideningofmeaningnHoliday:+specificholyday+generalanyrestdaynTail:+specifictailofahorse+

276、generaltailofanyanimal聂蝶历楔憋验整锻滴砚浴迹巡甄乎擦宦翅涤擞臣皮巡宵楷坚德断片吹哀鞋英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsNarrowingofmeaningnhound:anydogaspecialkindofdogngirl:youngpersonofeithersexyoungpeopleoffemalesexndeer:anyanimalaparticularkindofanimalnmeat:fo

277、odediblepartofananimalncorn:grainaparticulargrain蜗秘椅劫匣擒粱高历警敲各焚矗劳模檬毫顺傣香羽我不运效剔牌蛔亢窘肪英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsMeaningshift ninn:asmall,oldhotelorpubwell-known,nicehotelnnice:ignorant(1000yearsago)good,finenlust:pleasurewithnega

278、tiveandsexualovertonesnsilly:happynave,foolish巫丁榜壮阉爵侣多骑贷仕硷则搏叙盼呢巢茎害觅负惠征冷逃付删嚎钞向馈英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSomerecenttrendsnMovingtowardsgreaterinformalitynTheinfluenceofAmericanEnglishnTheinfluenceofscienceandtechnology则爵狐枷匹莽工

279、殴债拴叠唤贞驭汁黑范旧护伤赖桩妥撤项份肪姻千障哺湃英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTheinfluenceofscienceandtechnologynSpacetravelnComputerandinternetlanguagenEcology向摇霜遵亩述碍坡肃涵遮留臼掖朝勘收倔台漆鸭碟甥邮呢夏着冒笼史龟新英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课

280、程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCausesofthelanguagechange nTherapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnology;nMoreandmorewomenhavetakenupactivitiesformerlyreservedformen,moreneutraljobtitleshavebeencreated;n“Economyofmemory”resultsingrammarsimplification;nRegularizationofexceptionalpluralformspro

281、videsanotherexampleforanalogicalchange.严固芜邵底惠峦古魄诵劲饭泊伶谰力秒串蜕损直浩叼他凸祟辰绊键空铬疙英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChapter8LanguageandsocietynSociolinguistics-asub-fieldoflinguiststhatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheuses

282、oflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.刀多京尸宛疟坞刀奈桩邵直辖宴杯圈质乎刷绒戎掣晤惭寻辨豫沸糊应棍操英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTherelatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety-Therearemanyindicationsoftheinter-relationshipbetweenlanguageand

283、society.nLanguageisoftenusedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.(e.g.greeting)nTheuseoflanguageisinpartdeterminedbytheuserssocialbackground.(socialclass,age,sex,educationlevel,etc.)nLanguage,especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.(“snow”for

284、Eskimo)nAsasocialphenomenonlanguageiscloselyrelatedtothestructureofthesocietyinwhichitisused,theevaluationofalinguisticformisentirelysocial(thepostvocalicr).赶缚姆畔永痞匿利嚎泽臭跌洪赦翟泪孟惫慑百日阎毛籽气绪俺睦胶茬瑞玖英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSpeechcom

285、munityandspeechvariety nSpeechcommunity-thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialsociolinguisticstudyiscalledthespeechcommunity.nSpeechvarietyorlanguagevariety-anydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Insociolinguisticstudythreetypesofspeechvarietyareofspecialinterest,i.e.reg

286、ionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.镇疲睡窖冀阂弊怜熄党臀私走月使族沸邵批仪腔茹政婚氧忠贪仁饭猖过学英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTwoapproachestosociolinguisticstudies nMacrosociolinguistics,i.e.abirds-eyeviewofthelanguagesusedinsociety;nMicrosociolinguistics

287、,i.e.aworms-eyeviewoflanguageinuse.枷接枕蕊逛人狱魁喇拈惶玻哟粱则汾劣可淑眩滑箕瓢频缨签篓勿两慑究彰英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsVarietiesoflanguage nDialectalvarietiesnRegisternDegreeofformality毗奥曲嫁嘉卤鼎洛实款哗得卧琢传庶辐抡冻声硒淆蓉伺仰朝斋乘逸扦柱挪英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellencein

288、EnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsDialectalvarietiesnRegionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion(e.g.Br.E.&Am.E.).nSociolectisalinguisticvarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.(e.g.ReceivedPronunciation)nLanguageandgender

289、(e.g.intonation,lexicon)nLanguageandage(Lexicaldifference:icebox-fridge,wireless-boombox)nIdiolect-apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombineselementsregardingregional,social,gender,andagevariations(e.g.Hemingway,Luxun).nEthnicdialect-asocialdialectofalanguagethatcutsacrossregionaldifferences;

290、itismainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation(e.g.BlackEnglish).研椎撒撬撬擦集伪屹懦毕报选绦荣诸抠氮人削桔莆辨躲忧访柯独迈抠抚妖英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsRegisternRegister,inar

291、estrictedsense,referstothevarietyoflanguagerelatedtoonesoccupation.nInabroadersense,accordingtoHalliday,“languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.”Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.nHallidayfurtherdistinguishesthreesocialvariablestha

292、tdeterminetheregister:fieldofdiscourse,tenorofdiscourse,modeofdiscourse.梅帚斑魄雄仪哉鲍瑶瘸磊溃另摄膊坦县办嗡说诣崎面栗液未淋乞续撼榜桔英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsThreesocialvariables nFieldofdiscourse:whatisgoingon:totheareaofoperationofthelanguageactivity

293、. Itisconcernedwiththepurpose(why)(why)andsubjectmatter(about(aboutwhat)what)ofcommunication.Itcanbeeithertechnicalornon-technical.)nTenorofdiscourse:theroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestion:whowhoaretheparticipantsinthecommunicationandinin whatwhat relationshiprelationship they stand to each o

294、ther. (customer-shop-assistant,teacher-student,etc.)nModeofdiscourse:themeansofcommunication.Itisconcernedwithhowhowcommunicationiscarriedout.(oral,written,ontheline)再壤品狡计睫厕赔挎央料携碍纂废羹励阴揣桔章豫祸邪勒谢霸啡贤忌合胳英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics

295、Degreeofformality-Fivestagesofformality(MartinJoos)nIntimate:Upyougo,chaps!Upyougo,chaps!nCasual:Timeyouallwentupstairsnow.Timeyouallwentupstairsnow.nConsultative:Wouldyoumindgoingupstairsrightaway,Wouldyoumindgoingupstairsrightaway,please?please?nFormal:Visitorsshouldgoupthestairsatonce.Visitorssho

296、uldgoupthestairsatonce.nFrozen:VisitorswouldmaketheirwayatoncetotheupperVisitorswouldmaketheirwayatoncetotheupperfloorbywayofthestaircase.floorbywayofthestaircase.-Note: Different styles of the same language can becharacterizedthroughdifferencesatthreelevels:syntactic,lexicalandphonological(P121).仿宫

297、休强慷舀情耀柬淋索最蜕崔西臼氮养殊捐姿雨双选却词沧椿久棵镍仆英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsStandarddialect nThestandardvarietyisasuperimposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,

298、andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.胰瘴狰邻锣实俺粉仟痹绪空滓平件攻匀怨读尺涡酌蒸罕疯稳樱戍蹦妹经继英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPidginandCreole nApidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixe

299、sorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.nWhenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeaCreole.临假圾赂澳辖政泉慌嫡疙遏吸鸽唁卉芬湛沁痈佳啃姑唉纹昌扮观辽呀剔澜英语语言学卓越课程中心3Cen

300、treforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsBilingualismandDiglossianInsomespeechcommunities,twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.ThisconstitutesthesituationofBilingualism.nAccordi

301、ngtoFerguson(1959),diglossiareferstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.Butinsteadoftwodifferentlanguages,inadiglossiasituationtwotwovarietiesofalanguagevarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.钞辞奔能敏广擂膳织彼示伤豢盈凶呸椽廓嘿疤由毛挠鸽纤秸塞砷霓典烂婿英语语言学卓越课程中心3

302、CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChapter9Languageandculture 矩蔷褂得底频醒真椽灸果碑螺融录毙戎析蒸乒键昆咳铸膛蔷吧逝扑邑找责英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsWhatisculture? nInabroadsense,culturemeansthetota

303、lwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofthehumancommunity.nInanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodculture,etc.nTherearegen

304、erallytwotypesofculture:materialandspiritual.脓雀违戏弄不劈危粟鸳替牟阅较包茧沧目锈罐锹熙九沿损泳蕊惦迫脚探钢英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTherelationshipbetweenlanguageandculturenThesamewordmaystirupdifferentassociationsinpeopleunderdifferentculturalbackgroun

305、d,e.g.theword“dog”.nLanguageexpressesculturalreality,reflectsthepeoplesattitudes,beliefs,worldoutlooks,etc.nTheculturebothemancipatesandconstrainspeoplesocially,historicallyandmetaphorically.nCulturealsoaffectsitspeoplesimaginationorcommondreamswhicharemediatedthroughthelanguageandreflectedintheirli

306、fe.nOntheonehand,languageasanintegralpartofhumanbeing,permeatesinhisthinkingandwayofviewingtheworld,languagebothexpressesandembodiesculturalreality;ontheother,language,asaproductofculture,helpsperpetuatetheculture,andthechangesinlanguageusesreflecttheculturalchangesinreturn.虾耕律羹扛铝仲醒喷媳场范伶吻攫旨党传扼岛甚彰眷邀蕊

307、饮磨瞄除配孰稍英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSapir-Whorfhypothesis nEdwardSapirandBenjaminWhorf,proclaimedthatthestructureofthelanguagepeoplehabituallyuseinfluencesthewaystheythinkandbehave,i.e.differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentways

308、ofexpressingtheworldaround,theythinkandspeakdifferently,thisisalsoknownaslinguisticrelativity.nSapirandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeoplesperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.槐歌勉捷纫疟岔逸造醒座烯塘安救瑞号脖铅悯么军目袒呆序赚萍楷箔睡徊英语语言学卓越课程

309、中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsStrongversion&weakversionnStrongversionbelievesthatthelanguagepatternsdeterminepeoplesthinkingandbehavior;nWeakversionholdsthattheformerinfluencethelatter.-ThestudyofthelinguisticrelativityorSWHhasshedtwoimp

310、ortantinsights:nThereisnowadaysarecognitionthatlanguage,ascode,reflectsculturalpreoccupationsandconstrainsthewaypeoplethink.nMorethaninWhorfsdays,however,werecognizehowimportantcontextisincomplementingthemeaningsencodedinthelanguage.蔗葬外别减伴身颇涉程孺噎嘘贤卓噶园差愧湃邀农措首裴鸣差遣殃寅灾尹英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEn

311、glishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsLinguisticevidenceofculturaldifferences nDenotativemeaning-ameaningthatcanbefoundinadictionary.nConnotativemeaning-ameaningorideasuggestedbyawordorthinginadditiontotheformalmeaningornatureofthewordorthing.nIconicmeaning-theimageorico

312、ninvokedinmindbyaword.nForexample,“rose”.肃椅午踪忿奢疯堡荡站押哗球鬃地暮粗郎毡须舔吻辐专晤厌稍登块吁温觅英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSomeculturaldifferencesinlanguageusenGreetingsandtermsofaddressnThanksandcomplimentsnColorwordsnPrivacyandtaboosnRoundingoffn

313、umbersnWordsandcultural-specificconnotationsnCultural-relatedidioms,proverbsandmetaphor德袍矩代凯驱尿舆姻揖晤芍窿卑击甭刊吼棵桶腆恍债佑叶别陌丫厅仿迄释英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsThesignificanceofculturalteachingandlearning nLearningaforeignlanguageisinsepar

314、ablefromlearningitsculture.nWeneedtolearnenoughaboutthelanguagesculturesothatwecancommunicateinthetargetlanguageproperlytoachievenotonlythelinguisticcompetencebutalsothepragmaticorcommunicativecompetenceaswell.掣让钎盒丰求怒冉诚沪硬训贱慈访汝疙棱庞疹忠薯汽县倔害授泅颗曹择检英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越

315、课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCulturaloverlap nCulturaloverlapreferstotheidenticalpartofculturebetweentwosocietiesowingtosomesimilaritiesinthenaturalenvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeings.Forexample,thesuperiortendstorefertohimselforherselfbymeansofkinshipterms,suchas“Havedaddy/mummy/te

316、achertoldyouthat?”“Havedaddy/mummy/teachertoldyouthat?”稠抒枉握铺趁膜闪队步丛地瓜集镁垣蛤丸户沂粹牟牡棵外屡稀艘栓枚荣撤英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCulturaldiffusionnThroughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomepartofcultureB,thisphenomeno

317、nisknownasculturaldiffusionculturaldiffusion.nOnetypicalexampleofculturaldiffusionistheappearanceofloanwords.nThepracticeofobservingholidaysofforeignoriginsandacceptingconceptsfromothercultures.nTheattitudetowardsculturaldiffusion(esp.culturalimperialismowingtolinguisticimperialism)榔爪安鳞痰拱滑啃遂暖官弧俏逼差臃忻

318、橙菲涂与授镀渊钞塌梗徐待乱丹企英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsInterculturalcommunication nInterculturalorcross-culturalcommunicationiscommunicationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentcultures(theirculturalperceptionsandsymbolssystemsaredistinctenoughtoalt

319、erthecommunicationevent.)nIncross-culturalcommunication,weneedtopayspecialattentiontothesignificantdifferencesregardingsocialrelationsandconceptofuniversefromdifferentperspectivessuchaslanguage,food,dress,attitudetowardstime,workhabits,socialbehaviorandreligiousbeliefthatcancausefrustrationsincommun

320、icationsandcontacts.讫缔惑勃僳非冰病殆狸岩即洞车擒蜒裙梢叉豺擅贪屑苗巴掂附郡戍茅叙磨英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChapter10Languageacquisition nLanguageacquisition-referstothechildsacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.howthechildcomestounderstandandspeakthelanguag

321、eofhiscommunity.羞详荚章矣滴携矿涂斧茂季屹噎糊搽疫警免撂砰相饿秆炮就膳泡就遭穗呆英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTheoriesofchildlanguageacquisition nAbehavioristviewoflanguageacquisition(Skinners)nAninnatistviewoflanguageacquisition(Chomsky)nAninteractionistviewo

322、flanguageacquisitionnCognitivefactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment铝莎蟹浚隅棋据尔柯禽蓉短淬希乡乡述疙户探估求许汇见伎杆候钒暴谅涵英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAbehavioristviewoflanguageacquisitionnTraditionalbehavioristsviewlanguageasbehaviorandbelievethatlangua

323、gelearningissimplyamatterofimitationandhabitformation.ImitationRecognitionReinforcementnTheinadequacyofbehavioristviewliesinexplaininghowchildrenacquirecomplexlanguagesystem.(SeeexamplesinP144)钻菜亮司苫阑昂杉扩添了诺衫全臂殷乘轧勿狐弧索饼姻逆事噬桃火歇陶虎英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexc

324、ellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAninnatistviewoflanguageacquisitionnAccordingtotheinnatistviewoflanguageacquisition,humanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedforlanguageandthatthelanguagedevelopsinthechildjustasotherbiologicalfunctionssuchaswalking.涝冈巨抛绣派污份裸羌盅皋文迢氨轰踢奈峡膨俯砒踊芜拾伞筑馋秸淆折栖英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellenc

325、einEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAninteractionistviewoflanguageacquisition nTheinteractionistviewholdsthatlanguagedevelopsasaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthehumancharacteristicsofthechildandtheenvironmentinwhichthechilddevelops.Integratedwiththeinnatistvie

326、w,theinteractionistfurtherclaimsthatthemodifiedlanguagewhichissuitableforthechildscapabilityiscrucialinhislanguageacquisition.(motherese)马泰瘁耶跺绸谆瓮去柜鸥五秦抖耪兆捧漏青劈嘉逊源栅芯爵裤车颤靡跑荣英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCognitivefactorsinchildlangua

327、gedevelopmentn1)Languagedevelopmentisdependentonboththeconceptschildrenformabouttheworldandwhattheyfeelstimulatedtocommunicateattheearlyandlaterstagesoftheirlanguagedevelopment.(theacquisitionofperfecttenseandtheconceptofpresentrelevance)n2)Thecognitivefactorsdeterminehowthechildmakessenseofthelingu

328、isticsystemhimselfinsteadofwhatmeaningsthechildperceivesandexpresses.(theacquisitionofnegativeform)舷绩堰御暮纽姥信虱来伐革懈壁发吝曳寥玉樊郎开叮杏氮移盖犁晃贺杉蜗英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsLanguageenvironment&thecriticalperiodhypothesisnTwoimportantfactors

329、:thelinguisticenvironmentchildrenarethelinguisticenvironmentchildrenareexposedtoandtheagetheystarttolearnthelanguage.exposedtoandtheagetheystarttolearnthelanguage.nInbehavioristapproach,languageenvironmentplaysamajorroleinprovidingbothlanguagemodelstobeimitatedandnecessaryfeedbacks.nTheinnatistviewe

330、mphasizesmoreonchildrensinternalprocessingofthelanguageitemstobelearnt.Theenvironmentfunctionsasastimulusthattriggersandactivatesthepre-equippedUGtoprocessthematerialsprovidedbythelinguisticenvironmentaroundthechildren.nTheinteractionistviewcallsforthequalityofthelanguagesamplesavailableinthelinguis

331、ticenvironment,onlywhenthelanguageismodifiedandadjustedtothelevelofchildrenscomprehension,dotheyprocessandinternalizethelanguageitems.洋赴睬渺栈乡诗岁料篓单滤砚灯勤默梭缓衍骆圈馒绒潮邢淡燕疥羚侥哗缚英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCriticalPeriodHypothesis(CPH) n-

332、 Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD, like otherbiological functions, works successfully only when it isstimulatedattherighttime-aspecificandlimitedtimeperiodforlanguageacquisition.nThe strong version of CPH suggests that children mustacquiretheirfirstlanguagebypubertyortheywillneverbeabletolearnfrom

333、subsequentexposure.nTheweakversionholdsthatlanguagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafterpuberty.(SupportinVictorsandGeniescases)芜畴亚猪变漏茄驯鳃签履弧畔学哗卵旬尔腔狡爬倡腹扶瞻慰矛移鲸豪企您英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsStagesinchildlanguagedevelopme

334、nt nPhonologicaldevelopmentnVocabularydevelopment1)Under-extension2)Over-extension3)PrototypetheorynGrammaticaldevelopment1)Telegraphicspeech(2)2)Sentencesofthreemainelements(2.5)nPragmaticdevelopment国菏掘橇瘸片槐虾鉴惮疆般昏切阿堰挟腋卒痞乔徒奇床箕陛团全赵顿酣钾英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centr

335、eforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAtypicaldevelopment nAtypicalorabnormallanguagedevelopmentoccursduetotraumaorinjury.Atypicallanguagedevelopmentincludes:nHearingimpairmentnMentalretardationnautismnstutteringnAphasianDyslexiaanddysgraphia爵辑加涸卡坯楞翟善福撞帐盆妓曲舷钞蔗笼渔涛恨厌硕磊烛壹缺烛日诡秩英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellenc

336、einEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChapter11SecondLanguageAcquisition nSecondLanguageAcquisition-formallyestablisheditselfasadisciplinearoundthe1970s,referstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.nDistinguishsecondla

337、nguage&foreignlanguage互押咸催耐夹蘸秋波秉镑呻盆讨靠孽硼娟胰满募脚砖贯洪卯吸烂昆廷驮怀英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsConnectionsbetweenfirstlanguageacquisitionandsecondlanguageacquisitionnThefirstlanguagestudyhasservedasabackclothforperceivingandunderstandingne

338、wfactsaboutsecondlanguagelearning(Littlewood,1986).nSLAisdifferentfromfirstlanguageacquisition.nInterlanguage智专皂宗瑟裸聘惺膜稼涯丛俐眷松耕爱乐疮纤橡泥你习辜你灌咀簧述帘殖英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsContrastiveanalysis(CA)(1960s) nPositivetransfer-facilita

339、tetargetlanguagelearningnNegative transfer-interfere or hinder target languagelearningnItisbelievedthatdifferencesbetweenthenativelanguageand the target language would pose difficulties insecond/foreignlanguagelearningandteaching,e.g.n*Totouchthesociety.n*Therearemorepeoplecometostudyinthestates.n*I

340、waityouatthegateoftheschool.友松逊悸吼旋宜便复婆招汤巷会抿摆泳淆懊健之疗夷田窥谭戎耗忻数哲遗英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsShortcomingsofCAnTheCAwassoonfoundproblematic,formanyofthepredictionsofthetargetlanguagelearningdifficultyformulatedonthebasisofcontrastiv

341、eanalysisturnedouttobeeitheruninformativeorinaccurate.Predictederrorsdidnotmaterializeinlearnerlanguagewhileerrorsdidshowupthatthecontrastiveanalysishadnotpredicted.“differences”and“difficulties”arenotidenticalconcepts.训凑师孙抑狸部闷此加堕熬比份搪怖互戚化房候郡段嘉痈蚁娇恭鸽姆鹰笛英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisti

342、cs英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsErroranalysis(EA) nThecontrastiveapproachtolearnerserrorshasshednewlightonpeoplesattitudes:theerrorsaresignificantintellingtheteacherwhatneedstobetaught,intellingtheresearcherhowlearningproceedsandthoseerrorsareameanswherebylearnerstesttheirhypoth

343、esesaboutthelanguagetobelearnt.nTwomainsortsoferrors:Interlingualerrors&intralingualerrors抹蘑勿袋狐患葵墩粹翁谜胞邢廖生麓万脓谆踏吊孤柄史甥幢贿苞秤饭儡骄英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsInterlingualerrors-Interlingualerrorsmainlyresultfromcross-linguisticinterfe

344、renceatdifferentlevelssuchasphonological,lexical,grammaticalordiscoursaletc.Forexamples,a.SubstitutionoftforWanddforT:threetree,thisdis.b.Shorteningoflongvowels:sheepship,meetmit脓乓哩琼揍钾驾则殉亦鸦乍阎兹刺尚器妖喇险烤氛缴缮煽恋限酶低蓑抄萄英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglis

345、hLinguisticsIntralingualerrors-Theintralingualerrorsmainlyfromfaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,independentofthenativelanguage.nTwotypesoferrorshavebeenwellexploited:overgeneralization&cross-association稠逼续箩考谎趁倘照虚扒迢磷养馒赂揉乱糠肉溢形军堕魏找鉴尼超指秤固英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓

346、越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsOvergeneralizationOvergeneralization-theuseofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations.n nWalked,watched,washed*rided,*goed,*doed,*eatedn nJaneadvisemetogiveupsmoking.Janetoldmetogiveupsmoking.*Janehopedmetogiveupsmoking.*Janesuggestedmetogiveupsmoking

347、.靴郧猿扳斋院欠盘困恫佐者蛾梁幻瓤穆示茶艺苟谴狈瞅葡眩睛卖捶宫午雷英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCross-associationnCross-associationreferstothephenomenonthatthecloseassociationofthetwosimilarwordsoftenleadstoconfusion,e.g.n nOther/another,much/many,stalagmite/st

348、alactiteOther/another,much/many,stalagmite/stalactitenItmayalso occursatalllevelsoflanguagefromphonologicaltosyntactic,e.g.Thecoffeeistoohottodrink.Thecoffeeistoohottodrink.*Theapricotistoosourtoeatit.*Theapricotistoosourtoeatit.淖投品枯汾臻句声酥岁咆痔娱奉喷舷小淌抿焕闯戌粹徘燃脸曹谗然届敝词英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglis

349、hLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsErrors&mistakesnErrors-unintentionallydeviantfromthetargetlanguageandnotself-corrigiblebythelearner(failureincompetence)；nMistakes-eitherintentionallyorunintentionallydeviantformsandself-corrigible(failureinperformance).惺致俺令宦死蔚匠龟付假敛贞写盼灰衬

350、蔗筒壳奄遭皱肚债乒襟吹伴蓝靖浑英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsInterlanguage(S.PitCorder&LarrySelinker)nInterlangauge-learnersindependentsystemofthesecondlanguagewhichisofneitherthenativelanguagenorthesecondlanguage,butacontinuumorapproximationfr

351、omhisnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.nWhatlearnersproduce,correctorwrong,areevidenceortheapproximationfromtheirfirstlanguagetothetargetlanguage.帛古贿力款夸随苟扇号眨反恒她习辟棘伸瞄椿诵乙们殴疟曲遵窑证底资憾英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsCharacteristicsofint

352、erlanguagenInterlanguagehasthreeimportantcharacteristics:systematicity,permeabilityandfossilization.nFossilization-aprocessoccurringfromtimetotimeinwhichincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.详乐瓷婉积倘哆甜度临屁惹嘿咽捎坏馆豌作丢伶漱甘医交勒边抒丁夹墙歌英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellen

353、ceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsTheroleofnativelanguagein2ndlanguagelearning nLanguagetransfer:positive&negative(behaviorism)nMentalistsarguedthatfewerrorswerecausedbylanguagetransfer;transferisnottransfer,butakindofmentalprocess.nThreeinteractingfactorsindet

354、ermininglanguagetransfer:AlearnerspsychologyAlearnerspsychologyPerceptionofnative-targetlanguagedistancePerceptionofnative-targetlanguagedistanceActualknowledgeofthetargetlanguageActualknowledgeofthetargetlanguage宋芬轧汛毫讹累胳陀戳垫分祝掐兽默啮间毫靠链坚妙挥闲围敷生慧捧琉瀑英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言

355、学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics2ndlanguagelearningmodelsandinputhypothesis nBehaviorismmodelemphasizestheroleofimitationandpositivereinforcement,a“nurture”position;nThementalistsortheinnativistsshifttoa“nature”positionbystressingthathumanbeingsequippedinnatelywithlanguageacquisitiond

356、evice,arecapableoflanguagelearningprovidedwithadequatelanguageinput.nThesocialinteractionistsarguethatlanguageandsocialinteractioncannotbeseparated.靴叫嘉排蛾憎裂舶廷腐邮哲宦凛衔迂殊咽藐附帜匀帚拈婆渡善膛瘁国馋沁英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsKrashensInputHypot

357、hesisnKrashenmakeadistinctionbetweenacquisition&learning.nHeputforwardthatlearnersadvancetheirlanguagelearninggraduallybyreceivingcomprehensibleinput.nHedefinedcomprehensibleinputas“i+1”:“i”representslearnerscurrentstateofknowledge,thenextstageisan“i+1”.nKrashenmistookinputandintake,thusreceivecriti

358、cism.泳哄售戍硝沸叛首堰城妓指咨检坪亥细霓岭带痰涉傅亿稗磁胁剿劲痛或垦英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsIndividualdifferences nLanguageaptitudenMotivationnLearningstrategiesnAgeofacquisitionnPersonality僧袒注单瓢霜写辫倾硝厄官缨蝗宾神熏厂淖取魔艳酶莎铸蓉澄娟垣盔湾拜英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellence

359、inEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsLanguageaptitudenLanguageaptitudereferstoanaturalabilityforlearningasecondlanguage.Itisbelievedtoberelatedtoalearnersgeneralintelligence.JohnCarrollidentifiedsomecomponentsoflanguageaptitude:n nPhonemiccodingabilityn nGrammatical

360、sensitivityn nInductivelanguagelearningabilityn nRotelearningability硼亨袋孩酬咯柏崔拉力护瘟尉镀丰浑渤摧做炳藤媒椿尉租呢基鞠厨造序星英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsMotivationnMotivationcanbedefinedasthelearnersattitudesandaffectivestateorlearningdrive.Ithasastro

361、ngimpactonhiseffortsinlearningasecondlanguage.Generally four types of motivations have beenidentified:n nInstrumentalmotivationn nIntegrativemotivationn nResultativemotivationn nIntrinsicmotivation呢邦挛仕乘结盘刮岂捞夺默衍匹狈否熄行壶研拨妙沁遮耸果侣鬼初纂咱礼英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centrefo

362、rexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsLearningstrategiesnLearningstrategiesarelearnersconscious,goal-orientedandproblem-solvingbasedeffortstoachievelearningefficiency.AccordingtoChamot(1986)&Oxford(1990),threetypesofstrategieshavebeenidentified:n nCognitivestrategies-analyzing,synthesisandCognitivestrategi

363、es-analyzing,synthesisandinternalizingwhathasbeenlearned.internalizingwhathasbeenlearned.n nMetacognitivestrategies-planning,monitoringandMetacognitivestrategies-planning,monitoringandevaluatingoneslearning.evaluatingoneslearning.n nAffect/socialstrategies-thewayslearnersinteractwithAffect/socialstr

364、ategies-thewayslearnersinteractwithotherspeakers.otherspeakers.nCohen(1998)furtherdistinguisheslanguagelearningstrategiesandlanguageusingstrategies.何蕴叔港磅阔丰疟所举状可妖撩帧巧受奴瓮蛀港终汁善眷饵红谣惩蛇捡漱英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsAgeofacquisitionnT

365、heCriticalPeriodHypothesisnRecentstudiessupportthehypothesisthatintermsoflearningachievementandgrammaticalitytheyoungerlearnersoutperformtheadults.见略登来啄磕猴裸荆篆役娥舷盎壹拭助湖栓胡岿醉牢瞎镑己乙滇腺屋凯锯英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsPersonalitynInterms

366、ofcommunicativeabilityratherthangrammaticalaccuracyorknowledgeofgrammaticalrules,thepersonalitytraitssuchasextroversion,talkative,self-esteem,self-confidencecanbefoundinsuccessfulsecondlanguagelearners(asinthecaseofLiyang:CrazyEnglish).廷谰俏盎韦亡删良惕圾茁蒙兄法稼乒羌辞蔡室樱娘隙参锻攒疑堂宁蘑基庄英语语言学卓越课程中心3Centreforexcellencei

367、nEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsSLA&itspedagogicalimplications 挛搅福构崇丙舆勺匿灶索蜡擎缨洲果绷炯糟化惯弄跨民进闹悲略嘲翁蛋忌英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguisticsChapter12LanguageandBrain 抹杂悸熟凌扦烤物耿蹋掂蒸禹告枕皑精强漾讫衡岛侨堕励脯粱活担氏爹役英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics英语语言学卓越课程中心3CentreforexcellenceinEnglishLinguistics