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1、Definitions of PragmaticsDefinition 1:Pragmatics is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of a language.语用学是对在一种语言的结构中被语法化或被编码的那些语言和语境之间的关系的研究。Definition 2:Pragmatics is the study of all those aspects of meaning not captured i
2、n a semantic theory.语用学是对所有那些未能纳入语意理论的意义侧面的研究。Definition 3:Pragmatics is the study of deixis ( at least in part), implicature, presupposition, speech acts, and aspects of discourse structure.语用学是对指示（ 至少是其中的一部分）、含义、前提、言语行为以及话语结构各个侧面的研究。Definition 4:Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a languag
3、e use sentences to effect successful communication. ( Akmajian, 1979:267 )语用学是对语言的使用和语言交际进行的研究。Pragmatics vs semanticsnSimilarity:both are linguistic study of meaning.nDifference:pragmatics takes context into consideration,while semantics does not consider it.contextnFor example, “ It is cold in her
4、e.” from semantics, it simply expresses the semantic proposition of “the low temperature in a certain place”. They do not consider the following factors as “who speaks it to whom , when, where, why etc. In other words , they do not include context in the study of meanings语言对所使用的语言的掌握知识对语言交际上文的了解语言知识
5、对所使用的语言的掌握对语言交际上文的了解百科全书式的知识（常识)语境背景特定文化的社会规范知识特定文化的会话规则交际的时间、地点语言外情景交际的主题知识知识交际的正式程度交际参与者的相互关系相互知识From pragmaticsn“It is cold in here”, besides stating the temperature of a place, can be used by the speaker to ask the listener to do something, such as to close the window, turn on the heating or len
6、ding him a coatSentence meaning vs.utterance meaningnA sentence is a grammatical concept,sentence meaning is abstract, intrinsic and decontextulized, utterance meaning is concrete and context-dependent and is based on sentence meaning.nThe bag is heavy.nSemantics analysis :BAG(BEING HEAVY)nPragmatic
7、s:1)telling the hearer the bag is heavy2)ask the hearer to help him carry the bag 3)declining someones request for help.Speech act theory-Austins model nFirst theory: constatives（叙事话语）:statements that either state or describe and verifiablenPerformatives（行事话语）:were sentences that did not state a fac
8、t or describe a state,and were not verifiable.see examples on p88Austins new modelnLater,he gave up his distinction between constatives and performatives and set up his new model-a speaker might be performing 3 acts at the same time when speaking: locutionary act言内行为,illocutionary act言外行为 and perloc
9、utionary言后行为.Locutionaryact:theactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses,itstheactofconveyingmeaningIllocutionaryact:theactofexpressingthespeakersIntention,itstheactofperfomingsth.Perlocutionaryact:theactresultingfromsayingsth,theconsequenceoftheutterance.Ofthethree,linguistsaremostinterestedintheillocutio
10、naryact,becauseitisidenticalwiththespeakersintention.e.g.:You have left the door opennLocutionary act:utterance of all the words meaning.nIllocutionary act:asking sb.to close the door,or making a complaint or sth else depending on the context.nPerlocutionary act:the effect of the utteranceSearles cl
11、assification of speech actsnSpeech acts fall into five general categories:n1.representatives(阐述类):stating or describing,saying what the speaker believes to be true.e.g.:nI have never seen him before.nThe illucutionary point:to commit the speaker to sths being the casenStating,believing,swearing,hypo
12、thesizing are the most typical of this category.n2.directives（指令类）:to get the hearer to do sth.nE.g.:open the window!ninviting,suggesting,requesting,advising,warning, threatening,ordering are instances of this missives（承诺类）:committing the speaker himself to some future course.nE.g.:I promise to come
13、.n4.expressives（表达类）:to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.nE.g.:Im sorry for the mess I have made.n5. Declarations（宣告类）:bringing about immediate changes by saying sth.nE.g.:I fire you!nI appoint you chairman of the committee.summarynAll the acts belonging to the same category sh
14、are the same purpose but differ in their strength.nClose the door,please! nWill you close the door?nCan you close the door?nDo you mind closing the door?nI would be very grateful if you close the door.Principle of conversationnThe objective of pragmatic study:to explain how language is used to effec
15、t successful communication.Grices Cooperative Principle(CP)-In making conversation,the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate;or it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.Four maximsn1.the maxim of quantityn2.the maxim of qualityn3.the maxim of relationn4.the maxim of ma
16、nnernThe maxim of quantity:1.make your contribution as informative as required;n2.do not make your contribution more informative than requirednThe maxim of quality:1. Do not say what you believe to be falsen2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidencenThe maxim of relation: be relevantnTh
17、e maxim of manner:1. Avoid obscurity of expressionn2. Avoid ambiguityn3. Be briefn4. Be orderly Conversational implicaturenDo participants always observe the CP?nThey nearly observe but do not always .nWhen both the speaker and the hearer know the violation,conversational implicatuture occurs.nE.g.A
18、:where does X live?nB: somewhere in the suburbs of the city.nBoth A and B know that B knows exactly where X lives.thus B is flouting the maxim of quantity.nImplicature:I dont want to tell you where X lives.nA: Would you like to join us for the picnic?nB: Im afraid I am not feeling well.nBoth A and B
19、 know that B has no problem with his health.nWhat maxim does B violate?_the maxim of quality.nWhat implicature occurs?nI dont want to join you for the picnic.nA:The hostess is an awful bore,dont you think?nB: the roses are lovely,arent they?nwhat maxim does B violate?nWhats the implicature?nA:lets g
20、et the kids sth.nB:ok.but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.nBoth know its not difficult for B to pronounce the word ice-cream.nB violate the maxim of ?nImplying B doesnt want the kids to know they are talking about ice-creamsummarynThe significance or Grices CP is that it explains how it is possible for the s
21、peaker to convey more than is literally said.The politeness principle(PP)nA complement to the CP.nA: well all miss bill and jane, wont we?nB: well, well all miss bill.nWhat maxim does B violate?.what implicature does it occur?nThis example illustrates that people observe the PP even at the cost of v
22、iolating the CP.So CP has a higher regulative role than the CP.The maxims of PP Leechs approach to politenessnTact maxim:Tactmaxim(a)Minimizethecosttoothers;(b)Maximizethebenefittoothers;策略准则:尽量少让别人吃亏;尽量多使别人得益。使自己受惠最小,使他人受惠最大;使自己受损最大,使他人受损最小TheGenerositymaxim:(a)Minimisethebenefittoself;(b)Maximiset
23、hecosttoself;慷慨准则:尽量少使自己得益;尽量多让自己吃亏TheApprobation(orflattery)maxim:(a)Minimisedispraiseofothers;(b)Maximisepraiseofothers赞扬准则:尽量少贬损别人;尽量多赞扬别人。:TheModestyMaxim:(a)Minimisepraiseofself.(b)Maximisedispraiseofself谦虚准则:尽量少赞扬自己;尽量多贬损自己v)TheAgreementMaxim:(a)Minimisedisagreementbetweenselfandothers;(b)Maxi
24、miseagreementbetweenselfandothers;一致准则:尽量缩小双方的分歧;尽量夸大双方的一致(vi)TheSympathyMaxim(a)Minimiseantipathybetweenselfandothers;(b)Maximisesympathybetweenselfandothers.同情准则:尽量缩小自身对他人的反感;尽量夸大自身对他人的同情The weak points of PPnIgnore appropriatenessnYou would be doing me a great favor if you could keep the job for
25、me.(I_-a clerk, you -boss)nYou would be doing me a great favor if you could pass me the newspaper.(workmates)nWould it be possible for you to close the door?nCould you close the door?nWill you close the door?nPlease close the door!nClose the door!nHow many times do I have to tell you to close the door?
