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1、Chapter 4 4.1 syntactic（句法的） relations 4.1.1 positional relation( 位置关系） For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrase that can occur in a clause. Positional relation or word order refers to the sequential （有序的） arrangement
2、of words in a language. Positional relation are a manifestation( 表现）of one aspect of syntagmatic relations Word order is among the three basic ways (word order genetic and classification) to classify language words. Six possible types of language SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS English is SVO. 4.1.2 relation of
3、 substitutability( 可代替性） Firstly relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable of each other grammatically in sentence with the same structure. Secondly it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a p
4、articular set. This is what Saussure called associative( 联想的） relations or in Hjemslev s paradigmatic( 纵聚性的) relation. 4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence( 共现） Means words of different sets of clauses may permit pr require the occurrence of a word of another set or class to from a sentence or a particul
5、ar part of a sentence. Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic rations partly to paradigmatic relations. 4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents 4.2.1 Grammatical construction Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrases structures to certain compl
6、ex lexemes(词位） 4.2.2 immediate constituents( 直接成分） Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: This is tree diagram. 在句子结构分析中， 成分用来指任何语言单位， 而该单位又是更大语言单位的一部分，如在 The girl ate the apple 本身的（A） the boy（B) ate the apple (C ）都是 S NP VP De t N V NP
7、De t N The girl ate the apple 欢迎下载 2 一个成分，成分可以和其他成分组合组成更大的单位， 如果两个成分 B（the boy )C (ate the apple)结合起来形成一个更高的成分 A Word-level N=noun A=adjective V=verb P=preposition Det=determiner Adv=adverb Conj=conjunction Phrasal NP=noun phrase AP=adjective phrase VP=verb phrase PP=preposition phrase S=sentence or
8、 clause To dismantle a grammatical constructure is this way is called immediate constituents or IC analysis. Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit. (The) (girl) (ate) (the) (apple) 2.3 Endocentric and
9、 Exocentric Constructions Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocen
10、tric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head. 4.2.3.Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions 4.2.3.1Endocentric（相信结构） Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, wh
11、ich serves as a definable centre or head. Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head. 4.2.3.1 Exocentric（并列结构） Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of th
12、e words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase, the predicate (verb + object) construction, and the connective (be + complement) construction. 位而该单位又是更大语言单位
13、的一部分如在本身的都是一个成分成分可以和其他成分组合组成更大的单位如果两个成分结合起来形成一个更高的成分相信结构并列结构欢迎下载并列从属句法欢迎下载范畴性格递归性欢迎下载联系一 欢迎下载 3 2.4 Coordination and Subordination Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination （并列）is a common syntactic pattern in English and other l
14、anguages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or . Coordination of NPs: NP the lady or NP the tiger Coordination of VPs: VP go to the library and VP read a book Coordination of PPs: PP down the stairs and PP out the d
15、oor Coordination of APs: AP quite expensive and AP very beautiful Coordination of Ss: S John loves Mary and S Mary loves John too. Subordination （从属） refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usua
16、lly a constituent of the other. The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses: 4.3. Syntactic（句法） Function The syntactic function shows the
17、relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc. 4.3.1 Subject In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the do
18、er of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent. In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject ” and “logical subject” Word order Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement: Pro-forms The first
19、and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions: Agreement with the verb In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and perso
20、n of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb Content questions 位而该单位又是更大语言单位的一部分如在本身的都是一个成分成分可以和其他成分组合组成更大的单位如果两个成分结合起来形成一个更高的成分相信结构并列结构欢迎下载并列从属句法欢迎下载范畴性格递归性欢迎下载联系一 欢迎下载 4 If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of t
21、he sentence remains unchanged, as in 4.4Category （范畴） The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units: Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice 4.4.1 Number Number is a grammatical category used for the anal
22、ysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. 4.4.2Gende(性） Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter ”, “animate : inanimate ”, etc. for the analysis of word classes. 4.4.3Case（格） The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the synta
23、ctic relationship between words in a sentence. 4.4.4Agreement. Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmaticall
24、y marked category (or categories). 4.5Phrase, Clause and Sentence 4.5.1phrase Prase is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses. 4.5.3Sentence Basic sentence types: Quirk SVC Mary is kind. a nurse. SVA Mary is here. i
25、n the house. SV The child is laughing. SVO Somebody caught the ball. SVOC We have proved him wrong. a fool. SVOA I put the plate on the table. SVOO She gives me expensive presents. 4.6Recursiveness(递归性） Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another Clause Finit
26、e Non-finite Infinitive Participial Gerundial Subject Object Adverbial Relative Appositional Complement 位而该单位又是更大语言单位的一部分如在本身的都是一个成分成分可以和其他成分组合组成更大的单位如果两个成分结合起来形成一个更高的成分相信结构并列结构欢迎下载并列从属句法欢迎下载范畴性格递归性欢迎下载联系一 欢迎下载 5 constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important
27、 linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic. Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication. 4.6.1Conjoining
28、Conjoining: coordination. Conjunctions: and, but, and or. 联系一个小句或者其他并列或链接的过程，通过这种过程组成的句子即并列 4.6.2Embedding（嵌入） Embedding: subordination. Main clauses and subordinate clauses. Three basic types of subordinate clauses: Relative clause:Complement clause:Adverbial clause: 位而该单位又是更大语言单位的一部分如在本身的都是一个成分成分可以和其他成分组合组成更大的单位如果两个成分结合起来形成一个更高的成分相信结构并列结构欢迎下载并列从属句法欢迎下载范畴性格递归性欢迎下载联系一
