2022年笔记-新编简明英语语言学教程-复习资料

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1、Chapter one Introduction 一、定义1.语言学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language . 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics . 3.语言 language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communi

2、cation. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多产性（创造性）Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递5.语言能力Com

3、petence （抽象）Competence is the ideal user s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。7.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics The study of language change through time. a diachronic st

4、udy of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time . 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguistics The study of a given language at a given time. 9.语言 langue （抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 10.言语 parole

5、（具体）The realization of langue in actual use. 11.规定性 PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ” correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say. 12.描述性 DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use. 二、知识点1.language is not an isol

6、ated phenomenon, it s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings. 语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。2.几种观点和现象的提出者：精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 1 页，共 40 页瑞士语言学家F.de Saussure :Langue 和 parole 的区别美国语言学家N.Chomsky:in1950 针对Saussure s langue&parole 提出C

7、ompetence 和performance 曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家Sapir-language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. Hall-language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually us

8、ed oral-auditory arbitrary symbols. Chomsky-from now on I will consider language to be a set of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. 美国语言学家Charles Hockett :提出了语言的识别特征design features 3.the word language preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguis

9、tics studies not any particular language. Language 一词前不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。4.in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system ,what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts. 5.language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts, so its hardly possible fo

10、r the linguistics to deal with it all at once. 判断题6.Frist drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used in languages.最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。三、问答题1.what are major branches of linguistics ? what does each study? Phonetics-it s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it s concerned

11、 with all the sounds that occur in the world s languages. Phonology-the study of sounds systemsthe inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall. Morphology -It s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by whi

12、ch words are formed. Syntax-its a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics-It s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction. Pragmatics-the study of meaning in context of words. Sociolinguistics the study of language with reference to society. Ps

13、ycholinguistics -the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics -the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning. 2.why do we say language is arbitrary ? Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connec

14、tion between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, it s only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innat

15、e relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrariness of language is a rose by any other name would smell as sweet . 3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 2 页，共 40 页Modern linguistics

16、is descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language date.现代语言学是描述性的，其研究以确实可靠的、主要以口语形式的资料为基础。traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written language. 传统语法是规定性的，研究高级书面语。4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why Modern linguistics is

17、 mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view. 现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。 除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。5.which enjoys priority in modern ling

18、uistics, speech or writings? Speech enjoys for the following reasons: Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution. A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing. speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language. 6.how is Saussure s distinction between la

19、ngue and parole similar to Chomsky s ? Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of langu

20、age, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 6.the distinction between langue and parole ? langue is abstract, relatively stable parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation. 1/ What is li

21、nguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 2/ The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. ( 普通语言学 ) The study of sounds, which are

22、 used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音位学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to

23、 form sentences is called syntax（句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of

24、 mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 3 页，共 40 页语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic princ

25、iples and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language. Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （ 人 类 语 言 学 ）neurological linguistics, （神经语言学）mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some impo

26、rtant distinctions in linguistics 语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to b

27、e prescriptive. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “ correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The descrip

28、tion of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important. Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern lin

29、guistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carri

30、es a larger load of communication than the written. Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the re

31、alization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of st

32、udy of linguistics. Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950 s.精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 4 页，共 40 页He defines competence as the ideal user s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of thi

33、s knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules. Chapter Two Phonology 一、定义1.宽式音标Broad transcription The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. 2.窄式音标Narrow transcription The transcription of speech sound

34、with letters symbols and the diacritics. 3.清音 Voiceless When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds. 4.浊音 Voicing Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced

35、 sounds. 5.元音 Vowel The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels. 6.辅音 Consonants The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of

36、 the vocal tract are called consonants. 7.音位 Phoneme The basic unit in phonology, it s a collection of distinctive phonetic features. 8.音位变体Allophones 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 5 页，共 40 页Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allo

37、phones of that phoneme. 9.音素 phone A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it s a speech sound we use when speaking a language. 10.最小对立对Minimal pair When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the

38、strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 11.超切分特征Suprasegmental The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone. 12.互补分布complementary distribution P35 Two allophone

39、s of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 13.语言的语音媒介Phonic medium of language The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。14.爆破音 sto

40、ps When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. they areb p t d k g 二、知识点1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,00

41、0languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form. 2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing. 3.Phonetic 组成Articulatory phonetics 发音语音学longest established, mostly developed Auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 Acoustic phonetics 声学语音学4.articulatory Apparatus /O

42、rgans of Speech Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔Oral cavity 口腔 greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity 鼻腔5.The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sou

43、nd can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French. 6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation ofk andg,the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the soundj;the obstruction created between the tip of the

44、 tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the soundstandd. 7.nasal consonants: m / n / 8. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment. 9.Sequential rules 例子精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 6 页，共 40 页If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination shoul

45、d obey the following three rules: the first phoneme must be /s/ the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/ the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w 10.English has four basic types of intonation :Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone 三、问答题1.what are the three branches of phoneti

46、cs? how do they contribute to the study of speech sound? Articulatory describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. Auditory- studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical i

47、deal. Acoustic- studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer. 发音语音学描述了我们的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。听觉语音学研究语音的物理性质，得出了重要结论，即语音同一只是理论上的理想。声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话者之间的传播方式。2.how are the English consonants classified? By place of articulation and

48、By manner of articulation 3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who do you think will be more interested in the different between sayiandi,p andph,a phonetician or a philologist? why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么 ? Phonetics description of all speech sounds a

49、nd their find differences. Phonology description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning. A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos 4.what s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allopho

50、nes related to a phoneme? Phonea speech sound ,a phonetic unit. Phoneme-a collection of abstract sound features, a phonological unit. Allophones -actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts. 5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify the minimal se

51、t in a language?为什么区分最小对立组在一种语言中非常重要? Minimal pair two sound combinations identical in every way except in one sound element that occurs in the same position. 除了出现在同一位置的一个语音成分不同外,其他部分都一样的两个语音组合. Minimal set a group of sound combinations with the above feature. 一组具有上述特征的语音组合. By identifying the minim

52、al pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist can identify its phonemes. 通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组,音位学家能辨别出它的音位. 6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcription one letter symbol for one sound. Narrow transcription diacritics are added to

53、 the one-letter symbols to show the finer 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 7 页，共 40 页differences between sounds. 7.explain the sequential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule. 序列规则Sequential rulesRules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 同化规则 As

54、similation rulesThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 省略规则 Deletion ruleIt s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented. Chapter Three Mo

55、rphology 一、定义1.词素 Morpheme The basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit of language. 2.自由词素Free Morpheme Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves. 3.黏着词素Bound morphemes Bound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be use

56、d by themselves, must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently. 4.词根 Root Root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. 5.词缀 Affix The collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to

57、 another morpheme. 6.曲折词缀inflectional affixes The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case. 7.派生词缀Derivational affixes The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition of derivational a

58、ffixes. 8.词干 Stem A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 8 页，共 40 页9.形态学规则Morphological rules They are rules that govern which affix can be added to

59、what type of stem to form a new word. 10.前缀 Prefix Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes be- and en(m)- 11.后缀 Suffix Suffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the meaning of the original word

60、and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules, we must guard against Over-generalization. 二、知识点Inflectional morphology 1.Morphology Derivational morphology Free morphemes Morphemes Root Bound morphemes Inflectional affixes Affixes Prefix Derivational affixes 2.some

61、words maybe said to contain a root morpheme. Suffix 4.Compound features: orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. semantically, the meaning of a

62、compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its component Chapter Four Syntax 一、定义1.句子 sentence A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 2.语言运用Linguistic competence The system of internalized lingui

63、stic knowledge of a language speaker. 3.谓语 Predicate 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 9 页，共 40 页The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. 4.定式子句Finite Clause A clause that takes a

64、subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. 5.从属子句Embedded Clause (E C) In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an E C . 6.主要子句Matrix Clause In a complexed sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix claus

65、e. 7.层次结构Hierarchical structure The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP. 8.语法关系Grammatical relations The structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and senten

66、ce. 9.句法类型Syntactic category A word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object. 10.表层结构S-structure A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. 11.深层结构D-structure A level of syntactic representation before the o

67、peration of necessary syntactic movement. 12.普遍语法General grammar A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about nature language. 13.移动 规则 Move A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. 14.句法移位Syntactic

68、movement Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its original place to a new position. 15.转换原则Transformation rules Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules, whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 16.X 标杆理论X-

69、bar theory A general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrases structure rules into a single format :X ”（ Spec） X(Compl). 一种泛指的、高度抽象的图示，它把所有的词组结构规则概括为一种程式X”（ Spec）X(Compl) a: X” b: X ” Spec X Spec X X X compl X complement NP the student who likes linguistics consists of Det, N and S with

70、 Det being the Specifier ,N the head, S the complement. NP( )有冠词、 名词和子句组成，冠词是指示语， 名词是核心词，子句是补足语。二、知识点1.syntax 这个单词源于Greek,本义是 arrangement. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 10 页，共 40 页2.我们把syntax 的学习看作a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentence. 3.A major goal of

71、 linguistics is to show with a consistent and explicit grammatical theory how syntactic rules account for this grammatical knowledge. 4.判断题： the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number ,and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to pro

72、duce and comprehend. 5.判断题 :A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense and mood. 一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动或事件。6.句子的分类simple sentence Types of sentences coordinate or compound sentenc

73、e Complex sentence 简单句 -It consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 并列句合成句 -It contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “but”, ”and”. ect. 复合句 It contains two or more clauses, one of which

74、 is incorporated into the other. 复合句的特点： An embedded clause functions as a grammatical unit in its matrix clause Most embedded clauses require an introductory word called a Subordinator, such as ” that”An embedded clause may not function as a grammatically well-formed sentence if it stands independe

75、ntly as a simple sentence unless its form changes. 子句是一个语法单位，大部分子句要带一个被称为从属连词的引导词，如果子句作为秒年第秒年句单独存在，它可能不是一个合乎规范的句子，除非改变他的形式。7.when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. 8.The hierarchical nature of sentence structure 句子结构层次特点sen

76、tences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase NP or verb phrase VP, grouped together. 9.The points at which the tree braches at various levels are called Branching nodes分叉点10.In addition to the use of structural tree diagrams, linguists may show the hierarchical

77、 structure of sentences by using brackets and subscript labels. 11.句法类型Major 主要词类open ,can add new words Lexical category 名、动、形、副词N,V,Adj,Adv Syntactic Minor 次要词类close, words are fixed Categories 限定、助动、介、代、连、叹Det,Aux,Prep,Pron,Conj,Int Phrasal category Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic c

78、ategory usually refers to a word(called a lexical category) or a phrase(called phrasal category)that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject in a sentence. 12.短语类型Noun Phrase NP 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 11 页，共 40 页Phrasal Verb Phrase VP Categories Prepos

79、ition Phrase PP Adjective Phrase AP 13.The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each moun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb, in many cases, grammatical relations refer virtually to who does what to whom . 14.we usually refer to the grammatical relations as subject of and dire

80、ct object of. 15.Combinational rules must be small in number so as not to create extra burdens on the human memory. also these rules must be powerful enough to yield all the possible sentences, and rule out the impossible ones 组合规则一定不能太多，以免给人的记忆带来过多的负担，用这些规则必须能组合出所有可能的句子，而排除不可能的句子。16.rules an genera

81、te an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties. It captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence. 循环性体现了语言中的句子能有更多的成分，使说话者能在同一句子中重复

82、一些句法成分。17.移位类型Syntactic NP-movement=t s involving the movement of a noun phrase. Movement 名词短语的移位WH-movement=It changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. 陈述变疑问句AUX- =the movement of an auxiliary verb to the sentence initial position. 助动词移位到句首的移位18.普遍语法的广义原则General Principles of Universal

83、 Grammar: Case Condition和 Adjacency Condition 格条件 -a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned by V or P to the object position, or by AUX to the subject position. 名词词组必须有格，宾语的格是由动词或介词决定，而主语的格由助动词决定。相邻条件 a case assignor and a Case recipient should stay adjacent to each other,it explains why no

84、 other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object. 格分派者和格接受者要相邻。这解释了为什么任何别的词组类不能插到动词和它的直接宾语之间。19.Universal Grammar is believed to contain a parameter with the valves 增 and减 set on the Adjacency condition. with English-type languages, the Adjacency Parameter is set to the增 va

85、lue, while for French-type language, the parameter is set to 减 value. 三、问答题1.Use the appropriate phrase structure rules to draw a labeled constituent structure tree diagram for each of the following sentences. the tower on the hill collapsed in the wind Mary promised John to see the doctor. 精选学习资料 -

86、 - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 12 页，共 40 页Chapter 5 Semantics 一、定义1.命名论 The naming theory The naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols,

87、 in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things. 2.意念论 The conceptualist view It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meanin

88、g they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. 3.语境论 Conceptualism It s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context. 4.行为主义论Behaviorism It refers to the

89、attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer ” . this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response. 5.意义 Sense It s concerned with the inherent meaning of the lingu

90、istic form. It s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it s abstract and de-contextualized. 6.所指意义Reference It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experi

91、ence. 7.同义词 Synonymy It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms. 8.多义词 Polysemy It refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. 9.同音 (形)异义 Homonymy It

92、refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 10.同音异义Homophones It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign. 11.同形异义Homographs It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g.

93、tear v./tear n. 12.上下义关系Hyponymy It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. 13.反义词 Antonymy It s the term used for opposi

94、teness of meaning on different dimension. 14.成分分析法Componential Analysis- 分析词汇抽象意义It s a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 13 页，共 40 页this approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into m

95、eaning components, called semantic features. 15.述谓结构分析Predication Analysis 由 British Linguist G.Leech 提出It s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect. 通过对论元argument 和谓语 predicate 的分析

96、，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。16.先设前提Presupposition It s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B. 17.蕴涵 Entailment Entailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B. A: Mark married a blonde heiress. B: Mark married a blonde. 二、知识点1.Ma

97、jor views of meaning study: The naming Theory- 希腊 Scholar Plato The conceptualism- 观点代表人是John Firth,但 Bloomfield 阐述更有说服力The Conceptualist view-Ogden和 Richards 用 classic semantic triangle of significance The Behaviorism- 英国 Bloomfield 提出，使用了Jack 和 Jill 故事阐明The naming theory 的局限性 : Its only applicable

98、 to Nouns only. Within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that dont exist in the real world. sense 2.Lexical meaning reference 3.主要的意义关系Synonymy ;Antonymy; Hyponymy; Polysemy; homonymy 4. (1)Dialectal synonyms synonyms used in different regional dialects Synonyms (2)Stylistic

99、 synonyms-Synonyms differing in style 分类(3)Synonyms that different in their emotive or evaluative meaning (4)Semantically different synonyms 例子：(1)British English Lift Luggage Lorry Petrol Flat windscreen torch American English Elevator Baggage Truck Gasoline Apartment windshield flashlight (2)kick

100、the bucket=pop off=die=pass away=decease 5.Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality. 6. some synonyms differ in their collocation. 例子 : Accuse.of charge. with rebuke.for sour milk Rotten tomatoes addled eggs rancid bacon or butter 7. a polysemic word, i.e, a word wit

101、h several meaning, is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word. complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence. 8.According naming theory words are just names or labels for things. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 14 页，共 40 页9.Every utterance occurs

102、 in a particular spatiotemporal situation, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance ,the speaker and the hearer, the action they are performing at the time, the various objects and event existed in the situation. 10.the contextulist view was further streng

103、thened by Bloomfield, who drew on behaviourist psychology when trying to define the meaning of linguistic forms. 11 Homophoneswhen two words are identical in sound Rain/reign; night/knight; piece/peace; leak/leek Homonymy Homographs when two words are identical in spelling 分类Bow v. /bow n. tear v./

104、tear n lead v./lead n. Complete homonyms when two words are identical in both spelling and sound.例子 Fast adj./ fast v. scale n./scale v. 12. (1)Gradable antonyms 分级反义词 (a matter of degree) 例子Oldmiddle-agedyoung; hot-warm-cold Antonym (2) Complementary antonyms互补反义词a matter of degree between 分类two ex

105、tremes 例子Alive dead; malefemale; (3) Relational opposites 关系反义词 (中间可以加成分，如上、中、下) father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below 13.句子间的意义关系sense relation between sentences X is synonymous with Y . X entails Y. X presupposes Y. X is a contradiction. X is semantically anomalous. 14.

106、Analysis of meaning 意义的分析(1)Componential analysis a way to analyze lexical meaning 对词汇成分的分析(2) Predication analysis a way to analyze sentence meaning 对句子意义的分析(1)is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word

107、can be dissected into meaning components, called Semantic features. 一个单词的意义可以分析为称作语义特征的意义。This is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features. 这一方法和把一个音位分析成更小的叫作区别性特征的方法类似。Plus and minimums signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic featur

108、e is present or absent, these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning. 加减号用来表示某一语义特征在一个词义中是存在或缺省，这些特征用大写字母来写。15.

109、the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components. Two aspects of Sentence meaning: grammatical and semantic meaning. 16.Selectional restrictions- Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules. 17.In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic u

110、nit is called predication- Predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. it applies to all forms of a sentence, 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 15 页，共 40 页including statements, imperative and interrogative. Predication consists of Arguments and Predicates. 述谓是句子基本单位，是对句

111、子的抽象化，适用于包括陈述句、祈使句和疑问句。述谓由一个或数个论元和一个谓词组成。An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence, a predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. 论元是一个的逻辑的一个参与者，谓词是关于论元的陈述，

112、或说明一个句子的论元间的逻辑关系。18.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we classify the predications into two-place predication(has two arguments),one-place predication (has one argument),and no-place predication(has no argument). 19.判断题：although predicate and argument are the same kind

113、 of unit in terms of their componential make-up, they have different roles in the whole predication. the predicate can be regarded as the main element, for it includes tense, modality, ect. it may also said to govern the arguments for it determines the number of nature of the arguments. 20.The analy

114、sis of meaning is a highly abstract and complicated matter. 三、问答题1.how are sense and reference related? Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it s abstract and de-contextualized. Reference is what a linguistic f

115、orm refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality. 2.in what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of

116、 a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these dist

117、inctive sound features and its these sound features that distinguish different sounds. 3.what s grammaticality? what might take a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless? 什么是语法性？一个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的? Grammaticality-the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence. A sentence may

118、be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e. it may not make sense at all Chapter 6 pragmatics 一 、定义1.语境 Context The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it s generally

119、considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 16 页，共 40 页2.言语行为理论Speech act theory It s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. it s a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication

120、. it aims to answer the question ” what do we do when using language? ” The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the5categories of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by J.R.Searle constitute the speech act theory. 3.叙述句 C

121、onstatives Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.; 4.行为句 Performatives Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable. 5.言内行为Locutionary Act A locutionary act is the act of u

122、ttering words, phrases ,clauses. it s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 6.言外行为Illcotionary Act An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker s intention it s the act performed in saying something. 7.言后行为Perlocutionary Act Perlocuationary Act

123、is the act performed by or resulting from saying something. it s the consequence of ,or the change brought about by the utterance. 8.句子意义Sentence meaning It refers to a sentence and is a grammatical concept, the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract intrinsic property of the sentenc

124、e itself in terms of predication. 9.话语意义Utterance meaning It refers to a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes and utterance and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered. 10.合作原则Cooperative Principle It s proposed and formul

125、ated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. 11.会话含义Conversational implicatures According to P.Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in th utterance,

126、 understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP. 话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之意。二、知识点1.语用学的几个重要的理论言语行为理论Speech act theory 由英国哲学家John Austin 在 20 世纪 50 年代末提出在此理论基础上John区分了定义了叙述句Constatives

127、 和行为句performatives 在区分叙述句和行为句之后，他又定义了言内行为、言外行为和言后行为例子： you have left the door wide open. Locutionary act: expressed what each word of this sentence literally mean. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 17 页，共 40 页Illutionary act: expressed his intention of speaking, asking someone to close

128、the door. Perlocutionary act: someone heard the sentence, and close the door, then this act is successfully performed. 在这三种行为中，语言学家对言外行为最感兴趣cos this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker s intention, and in their study of language communication, linguists are most interested in how a spea

129、ker expresses his intention and also how his intention is recognized by the hearer. 会话原则CP 逻辑哲学家Paul Grice 提出 ; 2. 合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle 数量the maxim of Quantity- 你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求Make your contribution as informative as required; Do not make your contribution more informative tha

130、n is required 质量 the maxim of Quality - 不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话Do not say what you believe to false. Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence 关系the maxim of relation- 使你的话与话题相关be relevant 方式the maxim of manner- 避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity; Be brief/be orderly. 3.六七十年

131、代时，美国哲学语言学家John Searle对言外行为分成了5 类阐述性 Representatives-to commit the speaker to something s being the Case ,to the truth of what has been said. 例词 :stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing最有代表性 , 指令性 Directives-are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. 例词 :inviting, suggesting

132、,requesting ,advising ,warning ,threatening, ordering 是特有实例承诺性 Commissives-when speaking the speaker puts himself under obligation. 例词 :promising, undertaking, vowing最典型表达类 Expressives-the speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs. 例词 :apologizing ,thanking,

133、 congratulating 宣告类 Declarations-the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. 例句I now declare the meeting open/I appoint you chairman of the committee/I fire you. 这五类 differ in their strength or force. 4.Semantics 和 Pragmatics 的区

134、分Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication. The basic difference between them is that pragmatics considers meaning in context, traditional 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 18 页，共 40 页semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use. 5.语境中听

135、者与说话者shared knowledge is of two types: The knowledge of the language they use, the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place. 6.Sentence meaning与 Utterance meaning 的区别Sen

136、tence meaning-abstract, decontextualized. Utterance meaning-concrete, contextualized it s based on sentence meaning, it s the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. 区分句子和话句，类似区分语义和语用学，关键在于是否考虑语境。7.While most utterances take the

137、 form of sentences ,i.e. most utterances are complete sentences In terms of syntax, some utterances are not, and some can t even be restored to complete sentences Chapter 7 Historical linguistics 一、定义1.历时语言学Diachronic linguistics A term used in stead of historical linguistics to the study of languag

138、e change at various points in time at various historical stage. 2.元音大交替Great Vowel Shift A series of systematic sound change in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system. 3.词尾脱落A

139、pocope The deletion of a word-final vowel segment. 4.插入音 Epenthesis The insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word. 5.首字母缩略词Acronym A word created by combining the initials of a number of words. 6.混合法 Blending A process of forming a new word by combining parts of two other words

140、. 7.缩写词 Abbreviation A shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form. 8.略写词 Clipping A kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases. 9.逆向构词法Back-formation A process by which new words are formed by taking away he suffix of an existing word. 10.语义扩大化Semantic broad

141、ening The process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historical earlier denotation.缩小 less general or inclusive 11.原始语 Protolanguage 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 19 页，共 40 页The original form of a language family which has ceased to exist. 12.语

142、系 Family language A group of historically related languages that have developed from a comon ancestral language. 13.同源词 Cognate A word in one language which is similar in form and meaning to a word in another language because both languages have descended from a common source. 14.语音同化Sound assimilat

143、ion The physiological effect of one sound on another. 15.内部借用Internal borrowing The application of a rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar by analogy to its earlier operation. 16.派生法 Derivation It refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affix

144、es to the roots, stems, or words. 17.语义转换Semantic shift It s a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new , sometimes related meaning. 18.语义细化Elaboration Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or

145、 expressiveness. 19.古英语 Old English Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when Anglo-Saxsons invaded b the British Isles from northern Europe. 20.中世纪英语Middle English in 1066 Middle English began with the arrival of the Norman French invaders in England under William. 二、知识点1.the historical

146、study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence. 2.Language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. 3.Middle English had been deeply influenced by Norman French in vocabulary and grammar.

147、4.in old English, nearly half of the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative cases. 5.one of the most obvious change in English is the systematic and regular change in the Vowel Change. 6 英语发展的三个历史时期及历史事件Old English(449-1100): Began with the invasion of the British I

148、sles by English-speaking Anglo- Saxons from Europe, ended with the arrival of Norman French invaders historically known as the Norman Conquest. Middle English(1100-1500) It s distinguished from the Old English period by the Norman Conquest. Shakespeare s plays and Milton s Poems 受欧洲文艺复兴运动影响最大。Modern

149、 English(1500 up to now) From the Modern English period as the result of the cultural influence 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 20 页，共 40 页of the European renaissance movement. 7.古英语和现代英语词的对比Old English Modern English Mann man Wif woman Cild child Hus house Mete food Etan eat Drincan

150、drink Feohtan fight 8.the most wide-spread morphological change in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes. 9.As the result of Norman Conquest of 1066, vast quantities of French words were added to English vocabulary. 10.in general, linguistic change in the sound s

151、ystem and the vocabulary of a language is more noticeable than that in other systems of the grammar. 11.the ancient adjective agreement rule was dropped out of English mainly because the inflectional endings to show agreement in case, number and gender became distinct. 12.英语的语言变化linguistic change of

152、 English (loss, addition, change) 声音 Sound change 形态 Morphological change 句法 Syntactic change 语义 Semantic change 词汇 Lexical change 13.Language change is essentially a matter of change in the Grammar. 14.Sound change includes changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and movement of sounds. Grea

153、t Vowel Shift Sound Loss Sound Gain Middle E. Modern E. Middle E. Modern E. Middle E. Modern E. Five Fi:v Faiv Nicht/nixt nait Spinle spindle Mous Mu:s Maus Goose/go:si Gu:s Film Filum 口语发音Feet Fe:t Fi:t Name/na:ma Neim Glimse Glimpse Mood Mo:d Mu:d Love/luv lv Timer timber Break Br:ken Breik Helpe

154、尾音Help 消失Broke Brc:ken Br uk 15.The most widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes. 16.Sound loss 的特征或现象精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 21 页，共 40 页Voiceless velar fricative/x/ which existed in Old english words su

155、ch as nicht ,pronounced as /nixt/,the sound absent in the present-day form of night. Consonant loss involves the/kn/ clusters in the word-initial position. 如 goose Systematic sound losses such as plural pronunciation rule has disappeared. Deletion of Word-final vowel segment, 如 name.love 17.判断题 a ch

156、ange that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as Epenthesis. (此现象属于sound addition) 例子Spinlespindle emtyempty glimseglimpse timertimber 18.语音的移位Sound change as a result of sound movement,known as metathesis.it involvesa reversal in position of two adj

157、oining sound segments. 一般是 r 的移位例子 : bridd bird hroshorse 19. Affix loss 的特征或现象Morphemes wound change a word from one lexical category to another The drop of the causative verb formation rule. 使意动词的丢失: 如 -yan 加在 adj word 后可变成causative verb. The loss of gender and case markings 20.the most dramatic m

158、orphological loss concerns the loss of gender and case markings.Old english had a gender-marking system has 3genders: Masculine , feminine and neuter. 阳性、阴性和中性词。如： stan(stone) 阳性；gief(gift) 阴性； deor(wild animal) 中性21.语音的移位大多数是因为influence of foreign languages.其中french 影响最大，如-able,-ment,-ize. 22. Rule

159、 addition 的特征或现象Particle movement, 古英语没有此现象，现代英语有Auxiliary verbs and main verbs的区分 ,16 世纪前没有此现象如：助动词疑问词interrogative sentences 的前面23.在句法规则的增加中，old english period is known as the Particle movement rule,for modern english showes the particle of some phrasal verbs like ”throw out ”,”turn-off ”to postpo

160、ne to the right of the object. 如 John thew out the ball through the door/John thew the ball out through the door. 在古代英语中，没有particle 移位现象。24.Languages vary in the order of the subject,the verb and the object.the two typical ways to represent distinction of subject and object nouns are through extensi

161、ve case marking and rigid word order. 25.在古英语中，句子的顺序是SVO,VSO,SOV和OSV,The loss of case contrasts was compensated for with the adoption of the consistent SVO order. 26.The most vigorous and on-going change in the historical development of a language is the change in its Vocabulary. 27.French loan word

162、s did not always replace Old english words,but in many instances existed alongside of the native English vocabulary.sometimes, french loan words were used in conjunction with native English words to create Contrast. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 22 页，共 40 页28.词汇的增加borrowing 和 word f

163、ormation. The most obvious way in which modern english differs lexically from old english is the number of Borrowed words from other languages. 29.Old english contained a number of morphological rules that are extinct. 例子：大部分是derivational affixes. -baere , lust(“pleasure”)+baerelustbaere(“agreeable”

164、)-bora, mund(“protection” )+bora(“protector”)During the Renaisance,many latin and Greek words became part of the educated egnlish lexicon 30.New words have made their entry into english via word formation rules. 例子Compounding: sailboat, big-mouth, cross-cultural, three-year-old Derviation :uglificat

165、ion, finalize, Acronym formation: radar(radio detecting and ranging) 、CD-ROM(compat disk of read-only memory)、 laser、UNESCO Blending : smog(smoke+fog) brunch(breafast+lunch) motel(motor+hotel) Abbreviation :TV(televistion) Dr(doctor ) ft(foor or feet) N.Y(New York) Clipping :gym(gymnasium) sci fi(sc

166、ience fiction) e-mail、phys ed(physical education) 、hi-fi(high fidelity高保真 ) Back-formation ：typewriter(typewriter) edit (editor) Coinage : Kleenex (soft cleansing tissue) kodak 、xerox(photo copier) 语义的变化Semantic Change 这一节非常重要32.It s comparative in the sense that it aims at developing and elucidatin

167、g the genetic relationships that exist between and among langauges, classifying related languages into language families,and reconstructin their ancestral languages.what follows is a very brief account focusing on how historical linguists established genetic relationships of languages,and in particu

168、lar,the Indo-Europeean language family. 33.至今世界上已有over five thousand langauges are spoken. chinese :over 1.2billion native speakers Danish : less than 5million native speakers English: fewer than chinese,400million The four thousand languages have developed from their historical roots. To today,abou

169、t thirty language families have been documented in historical linguistic literature. 34.To identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree,and to reconstruct the protolanguage,the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist. 35. A language family is

170、established by the use of a method known as Comparative reconstruction. 36.Reliable linguistic signs of family relationships include systematic phonological, morphological, and semantic resemblances among the vocabulary items of different languages. 37.语义的变化类型41.With the application of the comparati

171、ve method,Persia,northern part of india were able to reconstruct the grammar of a single origin known as proto-Indo-European,from which a number of subfamilies of European and Indian subcontinental languages evloved. 42.判断题 syntactically,the verb of an old English sentence precedes, rather than foll

172、ows,the subject ,as is indicated by the transcription. 43.Norman Conquer makrked the dawning of the Middle English period. 44.Bilingual,pidin creole speakers contribute to formation of 新语言变体精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 23 页，共 40 页三、问答题1.描述变化的本质characterized the nature of language c

173、hange All living languages change with time.language change is not only universal and inevitable,but also systematic,extensive,on-going,and gradual.Language change is a rule-governed behavior,involving all components of the grammar. 2.语言变化的原因list the major causes of language change Sound assimilatio

174、n,Rule simplification and internal borrowing与语法变化有关语音同化Sound assimilation Assimilative processes are phonological changes due to physiological mechanisms.it also involves vowel nasalization and morphological and lexical changes. 规则简化Rule simplification It s a type of spontaneous morphological rule c

175、hange involves exceptional plural forms of nouns.the same kind of analogic change is exemplified by the regularization of some borrowed words whose plural formation rule is different from the regular english. 内部借用Internal Borrowing It s motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called

176、internal borrowing.it represents a continual readjustment of a language s grammatical system as it develops from one state of equilibrium to another. 规则细化Elaboration It occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness. 社会因素Social triggers 文化转移Cultu

177、ral transmission 儿童语法接近成人语法Children s approximation toward the adult grammar. A generally accepted view among language acquisition scholars is that children acquire their native language not through formal instrucation of grammatical rules, they often construct their personal information they hear.

178、Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 一、定义1.言语社区Speech Community It refers to a group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms. 2.社会方言Socialect A variety of language used by people belonging to a prticular social class. 3.语域 Register A functional

179、speech or language variety that involves degrees of formality depending on the speech situation concerned. 4.标准语 Standard Language A superposed prestigious variety of language of a community or nation,usually based on the 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 24 页，共 40 页speech and writing o

180、f educated native speakers of the language. 5.通用语 Lingua Franca A variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speak different native languages or dialects. 6.洋泾浜语Pidgin 边缘性接触语言=有限的词汇 +缩减的语法结构by 其他语言的本族语者A marginal contact language with a limited v

181、ocabulary and reduced grammatical structures,used by native speakers of other languages as a means of business communication. 7.双言现象Diglossia A sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community,each serving a particular social function and use

182、d for a particular situation. 8.语言禁忌Linguistic taboo An obscene,profane,or swear word or expression that is prohibited from general use by the educated and “ polite” society. 9.委婉语 Euphemism A word or expression that is thought to be mild,indirect,or less offensive and used as a polite substitute fo

183、r the supposedly harsh and unpleasant word or expression. 10.语码转换Code-Switching It refers to a bilingual speaker foten uses two languages alternatively during a conversation with another bilingual speaker.人们在交际中根据需要轮流使用不同的语言、方言或其他变体。11.语言变体Speech V ariety It refers to any distinguishable form of spe

184、ech used by a speaker or gourp of speakers.the distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical, phonological, morphological, syntactic,or a combination of linguistic features. 12.双语 Bilingualism It refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an

185、individual or by a group of speakers. 13.少数民族方言Ethnic Dialect It refers to a phenomenon that within a society speech variation may come about cos of different ethnic backgrounds. 14.使用域 Domain It refers to a phenomenon that most bilingual communities have one thing in common,that s, a fairly clear f

186、unctional diferentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situations,for example, the home Domain,Employment Domain. 15.语言计划Language Planning It s certain authorities,such as the government choosees a particular speech variety and spread the use of it,including its pronunciation and spellin

187、g systems,across regional boundaries. 16.发音 Accent If refers to a way of pronunciation which tells the listener something about the speaker s regional or social background. 17.习语 Idiolect=Personal dialect A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines aspects of all the elements regarding

188、 regional,social,and stylistic variation,in one form or another. 18.混合语 Creoles It s originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 25 页，共 40 页community.e.g. French-based creoles spoken in Haiti and Louisiana. 19.语言情

189、景Language Situation A linguistic situation in which two standard language are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers,such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. For example, in Canada, both english and french are official languages. 20.区域变体Regional Variation Speech va

190、riation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.e.g. American English and British English,ect. 21.语域变体Register Varieties=Situational Dialects Registers are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations,in contrast to language varieties that are associated

191、 with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. 22.称呼术语Address Terms An address term,or address form refers to the word or words used to address somebody in speech or writing. 23.俚语 Slang It s a casual use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary,typically o

192、f arbitrary,flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness. 24. 社会语言学Sociolinguistics It s the subdiscipline of linguistics that studies language with in socical context. 二、知识点1.Sociolinguists are concerned with the social singificanc

193、e of language variation and language use in different speech communities including regional,ethnic and social groups. 2.In sociolinguistic studies,speakers are treated as memebers of social groups. 3.Social groups may be defined in a number of ways besides regionally.it may distinguish itself from r

194、est of the community by its distinct ethnic affiliation. 4.Considered a more neutral term,speech variety is sometimes used intead of standard langauge,vernacular language,dialect,pidgin,creole,ect. 5.语言学家最感兴趣的三个语言变体Regional dialects,sociolects or social dialects and registers. 6.Regional variation o

195、f language is the most discernible and definable. 7.Stylistic variation in a person s speech,or writing,usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation. 8.判断题 the standard language is a superposed,socially prestigious diale

196、ct of language,its the langauge employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media,and taught in educational institutions,including school settings where the langaue is taught as a foreign or second language. 9.Language varieties other han the standard are called nonstandard,

197、or vernacular languages. 10.The standard language of many countries,is also designated as the national or official language. 11.Lingua franca,an italian term literally meaning” frankish language” or ” frankish tongue” . 12.The spoken language of modern china 普通话 embodies thepronunciation of the Beij

198、ing dialect, the grammar of Northern chinese dialects, the vocabulary of modern colloquial chinese. 13.通用语 Lingua Franca 和洋泾浜语Pidgin 的区别Pidgin is used for some practical purposes,such as trading,by groups of people who donot know each others langauge.Lingua Franca may have native speakers such as En

199、glish, 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 26 页，共 40 页Pidgin is not a native language of a particular region,but simply a marginal language used by people whose cultures are sharply separated and whoes business contact is very specialized. 14.The original Lingua Franca is believed to be a

200、n Indian-based pidgin used in Mediterranean ports 15.Most of the historical pidgins have become extinct. 16.The grammatical features such as case,tense,mood and voice are generally absent in pidgins,a pidgin typically lacks inflectional morphemes. 17.English-based pidgins are characterized by an abs

201、ence of any complex grammatical morphology and a limited vocabulary. 18.Pidgins have strict rules for determining word orders to compensate for the lack of case endings on nouns. 19.Creoles 最早来自长在南美洲的西班牙或葡萄牙裔。20.Diglossia 现象存在mostly in Arabic-speaking counties, Modern Greek,Swiss German and Haitian

202、Creole. in Paraguay,spanish as the high variety and local Indian language Guarani as the low variety. 21.Bilingualism 现象存在Canada: English and French Finland: Finnish and Swedish Belgium: French and Flemish Dutch 22.Most bilingual communities have one thing in common,that s a fairly clear functional

203、differentiation of the two languages in respect of speech situation known as domains. 23.An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less priviledged population that has experienced form of social isolation,such as racial discrimination or segregation. 24.The most widespread and most familiar ethnic var

204、iety of the english langauge is Black English. 25. 教育变体Education varieties Socialect 年龄变体 Age varieties Social Dialect 性别变体Gender varieties 社会方言语域变体 Register varieties 称谓术语 Address terms 俚语Slang 语言禁语Linguistic taboo 委婉Euphemism from a Greek word 26.当五岁时,syntax is more standard,vocaulary is limited;

205、十岁时 ,comparatively extensive vocabulary, structure of utterance doesnot differ from adults speech. 27.词汇方面，年龄和时代的不同is more noticeable across three generation time span than two-generation time span. 28.Language reflects deep-rooted sexist social attitude toward females by the way neutral terms are i

206、nterpreted. 29.It s one way out of the communication dilema is language standardization known as language planning. 30.Standard language is a supposed,socially prestigious dialect of language. 31.One specific aspect of situational use of language is address term usage. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总

207、结 - - - - - - -第 27 页，共 40 页32.委婉语 portly,full-figured代 fat,inexpensive 代 cheap,indisposed 代 sick. 33.The english system of adress terms 称谓方法frist name：Esperanto last name : Du title+last name : Mr.Du title alone : Professor kin term : Dad 34.Christains 的禁忌语” take the lords name in vain”,如 hell,darn

208、, In England,” bloody ” is a taboo word which originally referred to the blood of Christ,some ” respectable” people consider it a horrid word on a par with obscene or profane language and constantly in the mouths of uneducated speakers. 35.overt thought 或 subvocal speech（均可用下面定义）Language and thought

209、 may be viewed as indpenedent circles overlapping in some parts,where language and thought are consistent with each other and one never occurs without the other, When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other,we may regard thought as” subvocal speech” ,and speech as” overt

210、 thought” . 三、问答题1.特殊语域的区分how to distinguish a particular register from other registers? distinctive words using words or phrases in a particular way. speical grammatical constructions,such as scientific language,or legal language. 2.双语和双言的区分distinction between Bilingualism and Diglossia. Bilinguali

211、sm refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used in a speech community;in a diglossic community,two varieties of language are used for different situations,one being more standard and higher,and used for more formal matters,the other less prestigious,used for colloquial s

212、ituations. 双言现象是一个社区有两种标准语，双言社区中， 两种语言变体被用作不同的情景。一个较为标准，处于高层次；另一个较为口语化，声望不高。3. 黑人英语的特点 one of the most prominent phonological features of black english is the simplification of a consonant cluster at the end of a word dropping the word-final phoneme.e.g.”desk”pronounced as/des/,“told” pronounced as

213、/tou/; 音系特征，通过去掉词尾的音素简化位于词尾辅音连缀。one of the syntactic feature of black english is the absence of the copula,such as “they mine”,“you crazy” . Copula deletion as such occurs in some other english dialects,as well as in language like Arabic,Russian and chinese; 语法特征，经常缺失系词. the double negation construc

214、tion with sentence like ”I donot know nobody ”. 语法特征，双重否定结构. 黑人英语的disinctive feature persis not for racial,but for social,educationa and economic reasons. 4.列举女性言语和男性言语相异的方面List several ways of speech of women and men differ from each other. Women tend to use more presigious forms,more polite and in

215、direct language,and more specific color terms than their male counterparts. Women use more questions than declarative statements than males. 5.Why is productivity unique to langauge? The productivity of language is the property which enables its users to construct and understand 精选学习资料 - - - - - - -

216、 - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 28 页，共 40 页an indefinitely large number of utterances,including the novel utterances that they have never said heard before, The feature is unique to human langauge because most animal communication system appear to be highly restricted with respect to the number of differ

217、ent signals that their users can send and receive. For example,bee dancing is used only to indicate nectar sources,which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the meaning. 6.Why is syntax regarded as a system of rules? As a major component of grammar,syntax consists of a set of abstra

218、ct rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical setences.A sentence is considered grammatical when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers.if,on the other hand,a sentence violates a rule according to which words are organized,then native

219、speakers will judge it to be an impossible sentence of that langauge. Universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a langauge speaker. For any natural language,its the set of rules that makes it possible for the

220、speakers to produce,comprehend and memorize the vase number of sentences of their native language Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics 一、定义1.大脑皮层Cerebral Cortex The outside surface of the brain which receives messages from all the sensory organs and where human cognitive abilities reside. 接受所有感觉器官传来的信息，是人的认知

221、能力所存在的区域。2.大脑侧化Brain Lateralization The localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 认知机能和感知机能位于大脑的某一半球。3.语言侧化Linguistic lateralization Hemispheric specialization or dominance for language. 4.两耳分听Dichotic Listening A research technique which has been us

222、ed to study how the brain controls hearing and language, with which subjects wear earphones and simultaneously receive different sounds in the right and left ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear. 5.关键期 the critical period An early period of one s life extending to the age of puberty, dur

223、ing which the human brain is most ready to acquire language naturally and effortlessly, a period that coincides with the period of brain laterlization for language functions. 6. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 假设A theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf which states t

224、hat the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 29 页，共 40 页language. 人们看世界的方式完全或部分地由他们母语的结构决定，7.自我交际Interpersonal communication The process of using language within the individual to facilitate one s own

225、 thought and aid the formulation and manipulation of concepts. 语言使用者本人用语言促进自己的思维和帮助形成和使用概念的过程。8.无声言语Subvocal Speech A term used to refer to thought when thought and language are identical or closely parallel to each other. 用于指语言和思维是同一或近乎相同的. 9.神经元 Neurons Lying under the skull, the human brain conta

226、ins an average of ten billion nerve cells called Neurons. 10.脑半球 Hemispheres The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called hemisphere. 11.Broca s area French Surgeon: Paul Broca The language centre in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere is know as Broca s area. 12.语言决

227、定论Linguistic determinism Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language, or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism. 13.语言相对论Linguistic relativism It refers to the belief that speakers of different languages per

228、ceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background. It s hypothesis proposed by an American linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf concerning language and thought. 二、知识点1.Three areas of the left hemisphere are vital to language: Broca s area. =Expression Wernicke s are

229、a=Understanding Angular gyrus. =converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form, vice versa 2.The human brain is the most complicated organ of the body. 3.The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain-Cerebral cortex. 4.The Cortex is the decision-making organ of the bod

230、y, receiving messages from all the sensory organs and initiating all voluntary actions 5.大脑侧化for major mental functions under control of each hemisphere Left hemisphere Right hemisphere 语言和言语language speech 非语言声音的感知perception of nonlinguistic sounds 分析性推理analytic reasoning 整体性推理holistic reasoning 时间

231、安排Temporal ordering 视觉和空间技能精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 30 页，共 40 页visual spatial skills 读和写reading writing 图案识别recognition of patterns 计算和联想calculation associative thought 音乐旋律的识别recognition of musical melodies 6.The process of lateralization is believed to be maturational. 7.Most

232、 individuals, the left hemisphere is dominant for language, regardless of handiness. 8.Evidence in support of lateralization for language in left hemisphere comes from researches in Dichotic listening tasks. 两耳分听证明了左半球的侧化。9.Righ hear advantage shows the left hemisphere is not superior for processing

233、 all sounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support of view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and thats where language centers reside. 右耳优势证明了大脑左半球并不是处理所有声音时都有优势，只是处理本质上是语言的声音时有优势：大脑左侧负责语言，语言中枢就位于这一部分。10.法国外科医生Broca 是第一个证明damage

234、 to a specific area of the brain results in a speech production deficit. 11.德国内科医生Carl Wernicke 在 1874 发表的论文假设there was more than one language area in the left brain. 12.Angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke s area.this area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, for the

235、naming of objects, for the comprehension of written language and require connections between visual and speech organs. 13.When we listen,the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke s area. 14.The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in ones life extending from about two to puberty. 定义！1

236、5.Lenneberg 的推断，推出了Cerebral plasticity. 16.判断题A safe conclusion from Genie s case for the moment is that the language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop. 17. 早期学者针对语言和思想的观点Plato suggested that thought was the soul

237、 s discourse with itself. 柏拉图认为语言和思想相互统一的。Aristotle, who argued that mankind could not have the same languages and that languages were but signs of psychological experiences. 亚里士多德认为语言只是人类体现的符号。The debate between them, one being mentalist, other empiricist. 两个人的观点向背。一个是心灵主义，另一个是经验主义。Watson, thinking

238、 involved the same motor activities used in speaking, Bloomfield, thinking was a system of movements that had been reduced from actual speech to the point where they were no longer visible. 美国的 Watson 承袭了 Plato 的观点， Bloomfield 提出了近似的观点。18.填空 The relationship between the name and the meaning of a wor

239、d is quite arbitrary. ! 19.Language as a conventional coding system to express thought. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 31 页，共 40 页20.we recognize that language doesn t so much determine the way we think as it influences the way we perceive the world and recall things, and affects the

240、 ease with which we perform mental tasks. 21.Major functions of language a means of interpersonal communication. 人际交流 a means of intrapersonal communication. 自我交流22.Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 他的假设证明了语言决定思想Sapir-Whorf hypothesis proposes that the language we speak determines the way we perceive the world

241、 and so the nature of thought. 三、问答题1.in what cortical regions are speech and language thought to be localized? In what have come to be known as Broca s area, Wernicke s area and angular gyrus, all located in the left hemisphere of the brain. 2.how In your opinion does language relate thought and cu

242、lture? Language doesn t determine the way the speaker perceives the world, but largely functions as a means by which information can be stored and received, by which a culture transmits its belief, values and norms, and by which the speaker interacts other members of the cultures. 3.Describe the pro

243、cesses of language perception, comprehension and production. It s been proposed that the brain activity involved in hearing, understanding and then saying a word would follow a definite pattern, when we listen, the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke s area, this signal is then transferred t

244、o Broca s area where preparations are made to produce it. A signal is then sent to the motor area controlling the vocal tract to physically articulate the word. When we speak, words are drawn from Wernicke s area and sent to Broca s area which determines the details of their form and pronunciation.

245、The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area. Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 一、定义1.语言习得Language acquisition Language acquisition refers to the development of the Child s acquisition of his mother tongue or first language, i.e, how he comes to understand and to speak the language of

246、his community. 2.输入 Input It refers to the language which a learner bears or receives and from which he or she can learn. 3.行为主义学习理论Behaviourist learning theory It s a theory of Psychology suggests that the learner s verbal behaviour is conditioned or reinforced through association between a stimulu

247、s and response when applied to first language acquisition. 源自心理学的理论行为主义,它认为儿童的语言行为是与他们所受刺激和随之的反应成相互条件的。精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 32 页，共 40 页4.独词句 One word holophrase / holophrase It refers to a single word that a ppears in children s early speech and functions as a complex idea

248、or sentence. 5.电报式言语Telegraphic speech 属于 early multiword 阶段It refers to the early speech of children. it s so called because it lacks the same sorts of words which adults typically leave out of telegrams(such as non-substantive words and inflectional morphemes). 也可以说成缺少inflectional morphemes and mo

249、st minor lexical categories. 6.转移 Language transfer It refers to the learners will subconsciously use their knowledge in learning a second language. Transfer can be either positive or negative. 7.对比分析Contrastive Analysis It refers to a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences b

250、etween two languages so as to predict learning difficulties caused by interference from the learner s first language and prepare the type of teaching materials that will reduce the effects of interference. 补充 establish linguistic differences between native and target language systems. 8.错误分析Error An

251、alysis An approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by the second language learners which suggests that many learner errors are not due to the learner s mother tongue interference but reflect universal learning strategies such as over-generalization and simplification of rules. 一种研究和分析第二

252、语言学习者所犯错误的方法.它指出语言学习者所犯的许多错误不是母语干扰所致而是体现了一些普遍的学习策略.如概括过度和规则简化。9.语际语 Interlanguage The approximate language system that a second language learner constructs which represents his or her transitional competence in the target language. 第二语言学习这在学习过程中所构建的近乎目标语的语言体系，它体现了学习者在目标学习的过渡性语言能力。10.语言僵化Fossilizatio

253、n A process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features (such as the accent of a grammatical pattern) become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language. 11.工具性学习动机Instrumental motivation The learner s desire to learn a se

254、cond language because its useful for some functional, instrumental goals, such as getting a job, passing an examination, or reading for information. 12.介入性学习动机Integrative motivation The learners desire to learn a second language in order to communicate with native speakers of the target language.为了与

255、人交流。13.语言文化移入Acculturation A process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community. 14.幼儿保育员言语Caretaker speech Simple, modified speech used by parents, baby-sitter, ect. When they talk to young children who are acquiring their native language. 15.干扰 Interference The ef

256、fect of one s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 33 页，共 40 页16.国际语法Universal Grammar The different languages have a similar level of complexity and detail, and reflect general abstract properties of the common linguistic syst

257、em is called. 17.第一语言的习得the 1st language acquisition The development of a first or native language is called the 1st language acquisition. 18.It s normally assumed that, by the age of five, with an opening vocabulary of more than 2.000 words, children have completed the greater part of the language

258、acquisition process. 19.语法系统发展语音 Phonology 句法 Syntax 形态Morphology 词汇和语义Vocabulary and semantics 20.判断题 Children first acquire the sounds found in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in later stages acquire the more difficult sounds. 21.The emergency of articu

259、latory skills begins around the age when children start to produce babbling sounds. 22.Researchers are particularly interested in the increasing complexity of negative sentences in child language development. they have found that correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language dev

260、elopment. 23.判断题SLA is primarily the study of how learners acquires or learn an additional language after they have acquired their first language.(L1) 24.美国的 Stephenson Krashen区分了 Acquisition 和 Learning He said Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first la

261、nguage by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. Learning, it is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings. 25.判断题The learners transitional competence moving along a learning continuum stretching from one s L1comp

262、etence to the target language competence. 26.About the interlanguage, specifically, it consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in- between and yet distinct from the learner s native and target languages. It s a product of L2learning, mother tongue interference, overge

263、neralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner. 语际语包含一系列与本族语和目的语的相关并相似的语言体系，既介于本族语和目的语之间，又不同于他们的语言体系。语际语是第二语言训练、母语干扰、对目的语语言规则概括以及学习者的学习和交际策略的综合产物。27.判断题although its found that formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA, it does pro

264、vide opportunities to receive comprehensible input, and in so doing enables the classroom learner to perform a wider range of linguistic tasks than the naturalistic learner and thereby accelerates the rate of acquisition. 尽管正规教学几乎不能影响第二语言习得的自然轨道，但却能为学习者提供接受可理解的输入信息的机会，这样做是课堂学习者比自然学习者所进行的第二语言学习得面要广一些

265、，从而加速其习得过程。28.学习者的个人因素Individual Learner Factors 最佳学习年龄The optimum age for 2nd language acquisition: 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 34 页，共 40 页动机 Motivation 语言文化移入Acculturation 学习者的个性Personality 三、问答题1. what are the major individual factors for SLA? The acquisition of a second langua

266、ge is dependent on a combination of factors.the rate and ultimate success in SLA are also affected by individual learner factors. (1)The early years of one s life before puberty; (2)They must have strong motivation, instrumental or integrative; (3)The extent to which learners differ in the process o

267、f adapting to the new culture of the L2 community, that is , acculturation. (4)Learner s personality. 2.Different theories of child language acquisition have been advanced, discuss two contrasting views with reference to the behaviorist learning model and the nativist biological model. 论述行为主义学习理论和生物

268、先天论这两种相对立的观点。The Behaviourist view: language acquisition is a process of habit formation. Language is learned through stimulus and response. Reinforcement of selected responses is the key to understanding language development. Children learn to produce correct sentences because they are positively r

269、einforced when they say something right and negatively reinforced when they say something wrong. 语言习得是一个习惯培养的过程。语言是通过刺激与反应学习的。对有选择的反应的强化是理解语言发展的关键。儿童学会正确的使用语言，是因为他们正确的言语是得到积极强化而错误的言语得到消极强化。The Nativist view: language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings, children are born wit

270、h an innate ability to acquire language ,they are predisposed to develop their native language along a universal, predetermined route through similar stages. They go about acquiring the grammar of their native language using principles unique to language acquisition. 语言习得是人类特有的特性。儿童生来就具有天生的学习语言的能力，他

271、们生来就具有习得本族语的能力， 其习得过程沿着一条普遍、自然的轨道，并经历相似的阶段。他们使用语言习得的特有天赋习得本族语的语法。3.Discuss one major factor which contributes to the difficulties most second language learners encounter. 论述导致大多数第二语言学习者学习困难的一个主要因素。It has been suggested by some SLA scholars that learning difficulties confronting adultL2 learners aris

272、e from the fact that for most people a second language is learned in a formal setting, rather han acquired in a natural environment . Language acquisition is contrasted with language learning on the ground that acquisition is subconscious, focusing on meaning, which learning is conscious, focusing o

273、n form. Its argued that conscious knowledge of linguistic forms does not ensure acquisition of the rules, that is , does not ensure an immediate guidance for actual performance. 习得是无意识的，注重的是意义；学习是由意识的，注重的是形式。4.Enumerate some causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language

274、acquisition. 列举第二语言习得中出现系统性错误的一些原因精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 35 页，共 40 页Some major causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition include (1)Interference from the mother tongue; 母语干扰(2)Interlingual interference within the target language;目标

275、语的语际语干扰(3)overgeneralization. 过度概括具体分析Interference from the mother tongue: Mother tongue interference is found at the level of pronunciation, morphology, syntax, vocabulary and meaning, and can be predicated by contrasting the grammatical or other systems of the native and target languages. Interlin

276、gual interference: Interlingual interference ，or cross-association, occurs when the learner mixes rules and patterns of the target language and produce hybrid structures. Overgeneralization ：The use of previously available strategies in new situations, i.e. the application of a particular pattern or

277、 rule of the target language in many other linguistic situations 课本外练习资料中的考点内容一、定义1.tone Tone are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Tone is a suprasegmental feature. 2.Negative transfer Negative transfer occurs when the frist language pattern

278、is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language. it s commonly known as interference because it would lead to difficulties or errors in second language learning. 3.hapology It refers to the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence, For example, the old English w

279、ord ” engla -land ” (the land of Angles)came to be pronounced “ England ” through the assimilation of ” la-la ” sounds. 4.relational opposites Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. 5.语言判定Linguistic determinism It refers to t

280、he fact that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on langauge, to put it more bluntly, language determines thought. 6.语调 intonation When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the wordin isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. There are 4 types of in

281、tonation: The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone. 7.深层结构Deep structure It s an abstract level representing the basis for the meaning of a sentence. it consists of a structure generated by phrase structure rules and contains lexical items from the lexcion, but no

282、 transformations have yet applied to it. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 36 页，共 40 页8.连字符 Diacritics Diacritics are a set of symbols that added to the letter symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible. Diacritics are only used in narrow transcription. For

283、example, in broad transcription, the symbol l is used for the soundl in words like leaf li;f,feelfi;l. 9.历史和比较语言学Historical and comparative linguistics It s a study of ongoing changes that languages have undergone. It s historical because it deals with the historical development of individual langua

284、ges. It s comparative in the sense that it aims at developing and elucidating the genetic relationships that exist between and among languages, classifying related languages into language families and reconstructing their ancestral languages. 10.正向转移Positive transfer Transfer can be positive or nega

285、tive,. Presumably, positive transfer occurs when a first language pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target language. 例如 ,French people find no difficulty in learning the English word ”table” cos it has the same meaning as the French word” table”. 11.反向转移Negative transfer Negative transfer

286、occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.反向转移即人们常说的干扰干扰 Interference The effect of one s first language knowledge on the learning of a second language. 12.人际交流Intrapersonal communication It refers to one of the two major functions that language serve

287、s. as a means of intrapersonal communication, language facilitates thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual. 二、问答题1.why is the word order in Modern English more rigid than that in Old English? Because in Modern English there are no longer the elaborate morphological system used in Old

288、 English, such as the case marking system, to help to indicate grammatical relations. therefore, it is no longer possible to identify the functional roles of nouns by their inflectional endings. The functional notions of subject and object have to be indicated largely by the syntactic position of no

289、uns in a linear order, resulting in a system with stricter constraints on word order. 2.what features of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language? Language is a rule-governed system. Language is basically vocal. Language is arbitrary. Language is used

290、for human communication. 3.what s Broca s area and what will happen if any damage is inflicted upon it? In 1861, a French surgeon and anatomist Paul Broca discovered that somewhere in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere had something to do with speech difficulty. this place is known as

291、Brocas area. Any damage to sites in the left cerebral hemisphere will result in a patient s language disorder, whereas destruction of corresponding sites in the right hemisphere leave linguistic capacities intact. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 37 页，共 40 页Therefore if any damage is i

292、nflicted upon this area, it will result in word finding difficulties and problems with syntax. 4.sate briefly your understanding of the differences between the term acquisition and the term learning in language acquisition study? The distinction between acquisition and learning was proposed by the A

293、merican SLA scholar Stephen Krashen on the assumption that they are different processes. Acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. Learning is defined as a conscious process of accumulating

294、 knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings. Its recognized that children acquired their native language without explicit learning, which a second language is more commonly learned but to some degree may also be acquired, depending on the environmental setting and the input r

295、eceived by the L2learner. A rule can be learned before it is internalized(i.e. acquired),but having learned a rule does not necessarily preclude having to acquire it later. 5.suprasegmental features? how does it function in conveying meaning? the phonological features that occur above the sound segm

296、ental level are called suprasegmental features. the major suprasegmental features of English includes word stress, sentence stress and intonation. The suprasegmental features distinguish meaning. 超切分特征是在语音切分成分层面之上的音系特征。主要包括单词重音、语句重音和语调。超切分特征区分意义。6.what is the nature of language change in historical

297、linguistics? 语言的本质在历史语言学中的含义？language change is inevitable. as a general rule, language change is universal, continuous,to a considerable degree, regular and systematic. language change is extensive, taking place in virtually all aspects of the grammar in phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and s

298、emantics. when language change is in progress, phonemes, morphemes, words, and grammatical rules may be borrowed, added, lost, or altered, and meanwhile, the meaning of individual lexical items or strings of words may expand ,narrow,or shift. 7.Whats the difference between the instrumental motivatio

299、n and the integrative motivation of the learner s?工具性与介入性学习动机的不同点？usually, adults are motivated to learn a second language because of a communicative need, they may learn a second language in order to use it functionally when they intend to use it as an instrument for the purpose. in certain situati

300、ons an integrative motivation may be more powerful in facilitations may count for more. when the target language functions as a foreign language ,the learner is likely to benefit from an integrative motivation; 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 38 页，共 40 页but when the target language fu

301、nctions as a second language, an instrumental motivation is more effective. 8.词素的类别和使用How many morphemes are there in the English language? state what they are and illustrate how they work? there are two: free and bound morphemes. free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freel

302、y all by themselves. bound morphemes are those that cant be used independently but have to combined with other morphemes. either free or bound, to form a word, it includes 2types: A root is often seen as part of a word,it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning, it must b

303、e combined with another root or an affix to form a word. Affixes are morphemes that are added to an already existing morpheme to form a new word while changing its meaning and grammatical relations. it consists of both inflectional and derivational affixes, 9.语言的两种功能two functions of language? Two ma

304、jor functions are interpersonal and intrapersonal communication. 人际交流和自我交流 language functions as a means of interpersonal communication when language users use it to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to another or to control each others behavior. it functions as a means of in

305、trapersonal communication when it is used as a means of facilitate thinking, speech behavior and action for the individual. 10.为什么说结构树形图比线形图可更好的说明句子的层次性？why do we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure in analyzing the constituent relationship among linguistic

306、elements? in addition to revealing a linear order, a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, and consequently is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent rela

307、tionship among linguistic elements. 线形结构无法解释或说明有歧义的句子。for example, the phrase ”the old men and women” may have two interpretation. The adject ”old” may modify the noun ”men ”,or the “ women”. or both. linear order analysis cannot tell this difference, so its ambiguous. the constituent of tree diagra

308、ms analysis can make this difference clear. 11.音素、音位、音位变体的定义及关系Explain with examples 3notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, how they are related. A phone is a speech sound, it is a phonetic unit. any sound we hear in the course of communication is a phone, such as u:, l ; A phoneme is a phonologi

309、cal unit, its not a concrete sound but an abstract notion, its a collection of features. it can be realized as different phones in different phonetic contexts. Such as ,the phoneme l can be realized as a clear l or a dark l ,depending on where it occurs in a sound combination. The actually phonetic realization of a phoneme are called its allophones, allophones are the actual phones we hear in linguistic communication. 精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 39 页，共 40 页精选学习资料 - - - - - - - - - 名师归纳总结 - - - - - - -第 40 页，共 40 页