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1、Akt (v-Akt Murine Thymoma Viral Oncogene)/ PKB (Protein Kinase-B) is a Serine/threonine Kinase that is involved in mediating various biological responses, such as inhibition of Apoptosis and stimulation of cell proliferation. Three mammalian isoforms are currently known: Akt1/PKB- Alpha, Akt2/PKB-Be
2、ta and Akt3/PKB-Gamma. All three isoforms of Akt share a common structure of three domains. The N-terminus of the protein is a PH (Pleckstrin Homology) domain, which interacts with membrane lipid products such as PIP2 (Phosphatidylinositol-3,4-Bisphosphate) and PIP3 (Phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-Triph
3、osphate). The PH domain is approximately 100 amino acids and plays a role in recognition by upstream kinases and membrane translocation of Akt. The center region of the protein is the Kinase domain, which has high similarity to other kinases. This domain contains a conserved threonine residue, which
4、 needs to be phosphorylated in order to activate Akt. The approximately 40 amino acids at the C-terminus of the protein form a regulatory domain that contains a proline rich region and a hydrophobic motif with a conserved sequence of FXX (F/Y)(S/T)(Y/F). In mammals, this hydrophobic motif is FPQFSY.
5、 The serine or threonine residue in this motif must also be phosphorylated to activate Kinase activity of Akt. This is also a conserved residue (Ref.1).Activation of Akt can begin with several events, mainly the binding of a Ligand to a Receptor in the cell membrane. Most common Ligands activating A
6、kt include Growth factors, Cytokines, Mitogens and Hormones. Insulin and a variety of Growth factors bind to RTK (Receptor Tyrosine Kinase) and cause autophosphorylation of tyrosine residues on the intracellular domain of the receptor. PI3K (Phosphoinositol 3-Kinase) is recruited to the phosphotyros
7、ine residues (consensus sequence pYXXM) via SH2 domains in the regulatory domain (p85), and is therefore targeted to the inner cell membrane. Binding of the p85 subunit of PI3K to the phosphorylated RTK leads to conformational changes in the catalytic domain of PI3K (p110) and consequent kinase acti
8、vation. PI3K can be activated by Ras. Insulin can also activate PI3K via IRS1 (Insulin Receptor Substrate-1). GPCR (G-Protein-Coupled Receptor) also activates PI3K through GN-Beta (Guanine Nucleotide-Binding Protein-Beta) and GN-Gamma (Guanine Nucleotide-Binding Protein-Gamma) subunits of G-proteins
9、. Cytokines can also activate PI3K via JAK1 (Janus Kinase-1). In B-Cells, PI3K is activated by BCR (B-Cell Receptor) via SYK (Spleen Tyrosine Kinase) and BCAP (B-Cell Receptor Associated Protein). PI3K then phosphorylates membrane bound PIP2 to generate PIP3. The binding of PIP3 to the PH domain anc
10、hors Akt to the plasma membrane and allows its phosphorylation and activation by PDK1 (Phosphoinositide-Dependent Kinase-1). DNA-PK, CDC37 (Cell Division Cycle-37), HSP90 (Heat Shock Protein-90KD) and PKCBeta (Protein Kinase-C-Beta) are also reported to phosphorylate Akt. Integrins also activates Ak
11、t via FAK (Focal Adhesion Kinase), Paxillin and ILK (Integrin-Linked Kinase). Akt can also be activated in response to a variety of cellular stress, such as heat shock, administration of ultra violet light, ischemia (a decrease in blood supply), hypoxia (oxygen deficiency), hypoglycemia (abnormally
12、low level of glucose in the blood) and oxidative stress. The activity of Akt is negatively regulated by PTEN (Phosphatase and Tensin Homolog), SHIP (SH2-Containing Inositol Phosphatase) and CTMP (Carboxyl-Terminal Modulator Protein) (Ref.2, 3 & 4).The actions of Akt in the cell are numerous and dive
13、rse, but all result in anti-apoptosis, or pro-cell proliferation effects. These physiological roles of Akt include involvement in metabolism, protein synthesis, apoptosis pathways, transcription factor regulation and the cell cycle. Akt exerts its effects in the cell by phosphorylating a variety of
14、downstream substrates. The downstream targets of Akt include BAD (BCL2 Antagonist of Cell Death), Caspase9, FKHR (Forkhead Transcriptional Factor), GLUTs (Glucose Transporters), eNOS (Nitric Oxide Synthase), PFK2 (6-Phosphofructo-2-Kinase), PFK1(6-Phosphofructo-Kinase), mTOR (Mammalian Target of Rap
15、amycin), IKK (I-KappaB Kinase), NF-KappaB (Nuclear Factor-KappaB), GSK3 (Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3), WNK1(WNK Lysine deficient Protein Kinase-1), PRAS40 (Proline-Rich Akt Substrate 40 kDa), p47Phox, YAP (Yes-Associated Protein-1), Htt (Huntingtin), Ataxin, AR (Androgen Receptor), ASK1 (Apoptosis Si
16、gnal-Regulating Kinase-1), MDM2 (Mouse Double Minute-2), CREB (cAMP Response Element-Binding Protein), p21CIP1 (Cyclin Dependent Kinase Inhibitor-p21), p27KIP1 (Cyclin Dependent Kinase Inhibitor-p27) , Chk1 (Cell Cycle Checkpoint Kinase-1), XIAP (X-Linked Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein), Raf1 (v-Raf1 Murine Leukemia Viral Oncogene Homolog-1), PDE3B (Phosphodiesterase 3B cGMP-Inhibited), TSC (Tuberous Sclerosis Gene) and GABA(A)R (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Receptor-A) (Ref.4).Akt inhibit
