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1、第一章 语言和语言学 第一节 语言一、语言是什么 语言是人类用于交际和思维的最重要的符号系统。这个定义包括三个基本意思： 第一， 语言是人类独有的。 Human-specific第二，语言的基本功能是用于交际和思维(thought/mind)。第三，语言是一个符号系统。Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and thought.二、语言的起源(the origin of language)( 1)、“波喔”理论( the bow-wow theory)在远古时代，人类不断模仿周
2、围荒野里动物的叫声，语言由此发展而来。(2)、噗噗理论(thepooh-pooh theory)原始祖先们本能(instinctly)发出痛苦的、生气的或高兴的声 _(sound)。例如人类语言中普遍 (universal)存在的感叹词(interjection)。(3)、“吆嗨吆”(号子)理论(the “ yo-he-yo” theory) 原始人一起劳动时，发出有节奏的声响，这些声响渐渐演变成号子，最后发展成为语言。三、语言的本质特征( the design features of language)美国语言学家C.Hockett提出了 12种甄别性特征。Design features r
3、efer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.( 1 )任意性 ( arbitrariness)The arbitrary property of language refers to the fact that there is no intrinsic connection between form and meaning ,or between the sign and what it stands for. The
4、 symbols used are arbitrary . However,not every symbol is arbitrary. There are onomatopoeic words in every language ,such as cuckoo,bang ,crash in English. These words are imitations of natural sounds.( 2)能产性( productivity)The productivity of language is the property which enables its users to const
5、ruct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances or sentences,including the novel utterances that they have never said nor heard before.( 3)二层性( duality)Duality refers to the property of language with two levels of structure ,one of sounds and the other of meanings. This feature of lan
6、guage makes it possible for its users to have a vast of number of combinations of linguistic units at different levels for meaningful messages.( 4)易境性( displacement)This feature of language is that language can be used refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker. In other w
7、ords,language can be used to refer to real or imagined matters in the past,present or future.Displacement,however, does occasionally occur in the communication of bees.( 5 )文化传授性 ( cultural transmission)Cultural transmission refers to the fact that the ability to speak a language is passed down from
8、 one generation to the next by teaching and learning ,i.e. the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker.四、幼儿怎样学会说话(1) 关于幼儿学话的机理的假说1、 模仿说认为幼儿是通过模仿听到的语句而学会说话的。通过成人的重复、更正、赞许等 反馈，正确的说法得到强化，由此而形成幼儿的说话习惯。2、 天赋说儿童天生就具有一种语言习得装置”(language acquisition device，简称LAD)。 它是大脑专门为学话预先准备好
9、的，包括一套发现或构筑语言规则的一般原则。幼儿接触外界的语 句时，LAD就自动运行，帮助儿童弄懂这些语句，并且从他们推测这种语言的语法等。儿童就用这 种知识来产生句子。3、认知说语言习得是儿童智力发展的一个方面，不能脱离智力发展的全局来考察。总之，不同的假说的提出正是反映不同侧面的深入，它们实质上是互相补充而不是互相排斥的。(2) 幼儿习得语言所经历的阶段1、咿呀期2、独词句阶段3、双词句阶段4、电报体阶段5、接近成人阶段第二节 语言学一、语言学的定义语言学是研究语言及其相关问题的科学。Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of
10、language. 根据我们的看法，语言学的研究可以分为三类：基础研究、应用研究和交叉 研究，并由之形成了不同门类的语言学。二、语言学的研究范畴 语言是个多面体，它具有语音、形态、句法、意义等不同层面，对这些层面的专门研究分别构成了语音学和音系学、形态学、句法学和语义学等不同的语言学研究分支。语言学家 对语言的研究并不局限于语言体系本身，把语言置于运用语言的交际情景中进行研究构成了另一个语言 学研究分支，即语用学。对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic
11、s. This dealswith the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study ,in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, so its hardly possible
12、 for the linguists to deal with it all at once. They have to concentrate on one aspect of it at a time.三、语言学的一些重要区别(1) 共时语言学和历时语言学 共时语言学指的是截取语言的某一时代的横断面，加以描写和研究，它主要研究语言的结构系 统，是对语言的横向研究。又叫描写语言学，静态语言学。如，古代汉语。历时语言学又称动态语言学，主要研究语言的发展演变及其规律，是对语言的纵向研究。如， 汉语史。Synchronic linguistics describes a language as i
13、t is at some particular point in time, while diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of a language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.(2) 普通语言学和具体语言学 普通语言学又称一般语言学，它以人类的所有语言为研究对象，重在探讨语言的共性、语言的本 质和语言与社会等的关系，从而形成语言的普遍理论。具体语言学以某一具体的语言(如
14、英语、汉语)为研究对象。( 3) 口语和书面语( speech and writing)Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary ,not the written.( 4) 语言和言语Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community ,and parole re
15、fers to the realization of langue in actual use.( 5)共同语和方言共同语是一个语言社团所共同使用的语言，如普通话就是现代汉民族所共同使用的语言。 方言是语言的地域变体，是某一地区人民日常生活所使用的交际工具。(6)规定性和描述性 语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行描述，而不 是对人们应该如何使用语言作出规定。这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use,it i
16、s said to be descriptive; if it aims to lay down rules for“correct” behaviour,i.e, to tell people what they should say and what they should not say ,it is said to be prescriptive.(7) 语言能力和语言运用(competence and performance) Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language ,and performance the actual realization of this kno
