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1、Books in historyJohn VivianThe introduction of mass-produced books in the 15th century marked a turning point in human history. 15世纪大批量生产图书的采用标志着人类历史中的重要转折点。Before then, books were handwritten, usually by scribist monks who copied existing books onto blank sheets of paper letter by letter, one page
2、at a time.在那之前，书是手抄的，一般都是由那些超抄录员修道士把存在的书籍一个字一个字抄在空白纸页上，每次一页。 These scribists could turn out only a few hand-lettered books in a lifetime of tedium. 这些抄录员在他们单调冗长的一生中只能制造出很有限几本手写的书。In the middle-1400s, Johannes Gutenberg, a tinker in what is now Germany, devised an innovation that made it possible to
3、print pages using metal letters.在15世纪中叶，约翰尼斯古藤保，一个住在现在是德国的补锅匠， 设计出一种使得用金属字母打印纸张成为可能的发明。Gutenbergs revolutionary contribution was in applying metallurgy to the printing process, which went back to ancient China.古藤保的革命性的贡献在于将冶金术应用于印刷工序流程，最早可以追溯到古代中国。 The idea for movable metal type occurred to Gutenbe
4、rg in the mid-1430s.在15世纪30年代中期，古藤保有了金属活字的想法。 Instead of wood, which often cracked in the pressing process, he experimented with casting individual letters in a lead-based alloy.他试验将单个字母冶铸进含铅合金中，代替使用在印刷过程中经常出现裂缝的木头。 He built a frame the size of books page and then arranged the metal letters into wor
5、ds.他制作了一个书页大小的框架，然后将金属字母排列成单词。Once a page was filled-with letters and words and sentences-he put the frame into a modified wine press, applied ink, laid paper and pressed. 一旦一页用字母，单词，和句子填充好，他就将这个框架放到一个改良了的的榨酒机，应用油墨，铺上纸进行印刷。The process made it possible to produce dozens, even hundreds and thousands,
6、of copies. 这种制作法使得生产成打的，甚至于成百上千的复制本成为可能。Gutenbergs impact cannot be overstated. The duplicativeduplicate 复制品 完全一样的 power of movable type put the written word into wide circulation and fueled quantum increases in literacy.哥登堡的影响不能被夸大。活字印刷的复制性力量使手抄的单词可以广泛流传，推动了有文化人群数量的增长。 One hundred years after Guten
7、berg, the state of communication in Europe had undergone a revolution. （过去完成时）在哥登堡之后100年，欧洲的信息交流状况经历了一次革命。Elaborate postal systems were in place. 详细复杂，精心制作的邮政系统很合适。Standardized maps produced by printing presses replaced hand-copied maps, with all their inaccuracies and idiosyncrasies.利用印刷术制造的标准化的地图代
8、替了手抄地图，以及这种地图的不准确处和所有特性。 People began writing open letters to be distributed far and wide. 人们开始写能分布到遥远而且大范围地方的公开信。Newspapers followed. 报纸随之产生。The exchange of scientific discoveries was hastened trough special publications.科学发现的交流通过特殊、专门的公开发表加速传播。 Johannes Gutenberg stands at a dividing point in the
9、history of humankind. 约翰尼斯哥登堡站在人类历史的一个分水岭（转折点）上。A scribist culture preceded him. The age of mass communication followed. 在他之前是手抄文化。大众传播的时代随后到来。Books were valued in the Colonial Period .In Massachusetts in 1638,the Puritans set up Cambridge Press, the first book producer in what is now the United Sta
10、tes. 在殖民时代书籍是很珍贵的。1638年在马萨诸塞州，一个清教徒建立了剑桥出版社。这是在现在美国的第一个图书生产者。Just as today, personal libraries were a symbol of the intelligentsia. 正像现在，个人图书馆是知识阶层的一个象征（符号）。John Harvard of Cambridge, Massachusetts, was widely known for his personal collection of 300 books, a large library for the time.马萨诸塞州，剑桥的约翰哈佛
11、 因为他300册书的私人收藏，在当时是一个大图书馆，而被广泛知晓。 When Harvard died in 1638,he bequeathed his books to New Townne College, which was so grateful that it renamed itself for him. Today its Harvard University. 当哈佛在1938年死后，他将他的图书遗赠给新城大学， 这个大学如此感激以至于它为它重命名。现在，它的名字叫做哈佛大学。William Holmes McGuffeys reading textbooks series
12、brought the United States out of frontier illiteracy.威廉姆 福尔摩斯 麦格菲的阅读教科书系列将美国带出了边远地区文盲 的教育缺乏。More than 122 million of McGuffeys readers were sold beginning in 1836,coinciding with the boom in public-supported education as an American credo. 从1836年开始超过1.22亿册的麦格菲初级读物被售出，与此同时，公共扶持教育的兴起繁荣成为一个美国信条。In the
13、mid-1800s American publishers brought out books that identified a distinctive new literacy genre: the American novel. 在19世纪中期美国出版商推出了与具有特色的新的文学体裁相关的书：Still widely read are Nathaniel Hawthornes the Scarlet Letter (1850), Herman Melvilles Moby Dick (1851), Harriet Beecher Stowes Uncle Toms Cabin (1852
14、), Mark Twains Huckleberry Finn (1884) and Steprn Cranes The Red Badge of Courage (1895). 至今仍在广泛流传阅读的，有纳撒尼尔 霍桑的红字（1850），赫尔曼 梅尔威尔的大白鲸，哈利特 比彻 斯托夫人的汤姆叔叔的小屋（1852），马克吐温的哈克贝利费恩历险记 （1884）和克莱恩的红色勇气勋章。Toady, most of the books that shaped our culture are adapted to other media, which expands their influence.现
15、在，这些影响我们文化的书籍的大多数都被白边到其他媒体，从而扩大了它们的影响力。 Magazine serialization put Ronald Reagans memoirs in more hands than did the publisher of the book. 杂志连载使罗纳德里根的回忆录比做图书出版有了更多的联系（影响）More people have seen Carl Sagan on television than have read his books.更多的人都在电视上见过卡尔萨根而不是读过他的书。 Stephen King thrillers sell spec
16、tacularly, especially in paperback, but more people see the movie renditions. 斯蒂芬金的惊悚故事尤其是平装书卖的很好（很壮观），但是更多的人看电影表演。Books have a trickle-down effect through other media, their impact being felt even by those who cannot all do not read them.书籍应经通过其他媒体实现了滴入式效应，他们的影响力甚至可以被那些根本不去阅读它们的人感觉到。 Although people are more in touch with other mass media day to day, books are the heart of creating American culture and passing it on to new generations.尽管人们逐日更多的和其他大众媒体接触，书籍
