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1、1,生产和企业组织,第6章,2,生产理论和边际产品,6.1,3,生产系统,Firms,4,生产函数,The production function specifies (指定) the maximum output that can be produced with a given quantity of inputs. It is defined for a given state of engineering and technical knowledge. It looks like this: Q = F(K, L, R),5,Q= F(K,L,R),Q is the quantity
2、 of some products you want to produce. K is the capital or plant and equipment that you will need for the production. L is the number of employees or quantity of labor. R is a catch-all (包括所有的) term for other things like raw materials (原料) and energy. F is the state of the current technology.,6,专业术语
3、,The production function specifies the maximum output that can be produced with a given quantity of inputs for a given state of engineering and technical knowledge. 要点：给定投入时的各个可能的产量中最大的产量。在给定的工程和技术知识条件下。,7,背景知识,在给定的工程和技术知识条件的含义： 主流经济学的解释是，生产函数是生产一种物品的生产要素组合的各种可能性集合，而不是一个特定的生产要素组合。 For example, we ca
4、n imagine a book of technical specifications that shows the production function for generating electricity.,8,关于生产函数的不同认识,上个世纪的五、六十年代，有一场关于资本理论的争论。 其中的非主流经济学的一派学者认为，资本不可能像“橡皮泥”一样可以自由地改变其形状，因此，生产要素的组合比例是相对固定的。 于是，主流经济学就把生产函数解释为一系列可能的组合，以避开此类批评。,9,总产量和平均产量,Total product designates the total amount of
5、output produced in physical units. Average product equals total product divided by total units of input.,10,总产量和平均产量关系图示,总产量,劳动力,总产量,平均产量,11,边际产量,The marginal product (边际产量) of an input such as labor is the extra output added by 1 extra unit of that input while other inputs are hold constant. 说明：选择劳
6、动并没有必然性。我们也可以选择其他的投入变量。,12,Firm,边际产量图示,13,最大产出,劳动的边际产量的含义是：投入 N+1 单位劳动时的最大产量与投入 N 单位劳动时的最大产量之差。 增加 1 单位劳动后，所有的分工都要按最优方式重新安排，然后得出投入 N+1 劳动的产出水平。,14,0 0 1 2000 20002 3000 15003 3500 11674 3800 9505 3900 780,(1) (2) (3) (4)Units Total Marginal Average of labor product product product,2000,1000,500,300,
7、100,15,4000,3000,2000,1000,3000,2000,1000,0,1,2,3,4,5,1,2,3,4,5,Labor,Labor,Marginal product (per unit of labor),Total product,16,边际产量和总产量关系图示,总产量,劳动力,总产量,边际产量,17,生产的比例性,生产要求投入多种要素，而且要素之间通常有一定的比例性要求。有些生产要求投入要素之间的比例性高一些，有些则要求低一些。 例如，工业生产的比例性要求一般高一点，农业则低一点。,18,报酬递减规律,In production theory, we have to f
8、irst remember that in the short run, capital is fixed but factors like labor are variable. At some point then, the extra or marginal product of each additional worker must begin to decrease. Thats the law of diminishing returns.,19,报酬递减图示,当其他的投入固定，而一种投入的数量由 0 逐步增加时，边际产量开始可能递增，但迟早递减。,O,Marginal produ
9、ct,Quantity of labor,20,规模报酬问题,What would happen to wheat production if land, labor, water, and other inputs were increased by the same proportion (比例)? These questions refer to the returns to scale (规模报酬).,21,Firm,K L R,Q,规模报酬图示,22,规模报酬的三种情形,There are three important cases of returns to scale: cons
10、tant returns to scale (规模报酬不变), increasing returns to scale (规模报酬递增), decreasing returns to scale (规模报酬递减).,23,规模报酬不变,Constant returns to scale denote a case where a change in all inputs leads to a proportional (成比例的) change in output. Many handicraft industries (手艺行业) show constant returns.,a = b,2
11、4,1980年代的银行兼并,Most analysts (分析家) thought that the mergers (兼并) would reduce the unit costs of banking dramatically (引人注目地). Studies found that the mergers did not significantly (显著地) decrease costs. One possible explanation is constant returns to scale over a broad spectrum (光谱) of output.,25,规模报酬递
12、增,Increasing returns to scale arise when an increase in all inputs leads to a more-than-proportional (更大的比例) increase in the level of output.,a b,29,导致规模报酬递减的原因,Causes of diseconomies (不经济) of scale: plant may get too big for effective management; workers may begin to feel alienated (疏远的) from their
13、 jobs.,30,美国的汽车工业,In recent years, GM the worlds largest corporation has found itself with both a declining market share (市场份额) and a substantial (实际上的) cost disadvantage (成本劣势). In fact, GMs labor costs per car are nearly $800 more than Fords and $500 more than Chryslers.,31,生产力,Economists often th
14、ink that most production activities should be able to attain constant returns to scale. If increasing returns prevailed (流行), the larger scale of inputs and production would lead to greater productivity. 生产力进步是现代经济增长的主要动力和形式，也是导致各国经济实力差异的重要原因。,32,短期和长期,We define the short run (短期) as a period in which firms can adjust production by changing variable factors (可变要素) such as materials and labor but cannot change fixed factors (固定要素) such as capital. The long run (长期) is a period sufficiently long so that all factors including capital can be adjusted.,
