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1、syntaxsyntaxWhat is syntax?nStudy of how words are combined to form sentences nStudy of the rules that govern the formation of sentences e.g. * I dont like these book.* My favorite is for coffee, but I also drink tea.* I got many informations from the book. Definition of Categories（范畴） na group of l
2、inguistic items, such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb, which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language. (特定语言中执行相同或者类似功能的一类或者一组 的句子成分)nrelated groups of words such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives (单词的相关群组如名词, 动词,形容词)Word of the daySyntactic categoriesFLexical categories (
3、i.e. word-level categories): noun, verb, adjective, preposition, etc.FPhrasal categories: NP, VP, AP, PP, etc.Word-level categoriesWord-level categories nmajor lexical categories (head) 主要词汇 范畴 e.g. noun, verb, adjective, prepositionnminor lexical categories 次要词汇范畴 e.g. determiner, degree word, qual
4、ifier, auxiliary, conjunction Eight categories in traditional Eight categories in traditional grammar (parts of speech) grammar (parts of speech) （词类（词类 ） nopen class (content words) nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbsnclosed class (function words) pronouns, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and prep
5、ositions e.g. with the content words (function words deleted):_ broom _ sweeping _ floor belongs _ closet. with the function words (content words deleted):The _for _the _ in the _.Addition of non-traditional categories ndeterminers (Det)限定词- articles (a, an, the)- demonstratives (this, that, these,
6、those) -possessives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their)ndegree words (Deg) 程度词 e.g. quite, very, more, so, too, etc.nqualifier (Qual) 修饰词 e.g. often, always, seldom, almost, usually, etc.Word-level CategoriesnThe boy sees some very pretty flowers.perceives lovelysmells smallnHe puts the flowers on
7、 a green table.purple hydrangeas under pink posternNoun Verb Preposition AdjectivenThere are four major syntactic categories of open-class lexical items.Three criteria to determine words category:nmeaning (词义)ninflection (曲折变化)ndistribution (分布)Phrase categories and their Phrase categories and their
8、 structuresstructures（短语范畴及其结构）（短语范畴及其结构）n NP (noun phrase)n VP (verb phrase)n AP (adjective phrase)n PP (prepositional phrase)Two levelsTwo levelsphrasePhrase level Word level phrasephrasespecifiersheadcomplementse.g. a cup of tea all the people of ChinaPhrase structure rulePhrase structure rule（短语
9、结构规（短语结构规 则）则）nNP: (Det) N (PP)e.g. a a storystory about a sentimental girlabout a sentimental girlnVP: (Qual) V (NP) e.g. oftenoften have have noodles for lunchnoodles for lunchnAP: (Deg) A (PP) e.g. veryvery hothot in summerin summernPP: (Deg) P (NP) e.g. withoutwithout hesitationhesitationXP rule
10、（X短语规则）nThe XP rule: XP (specifier) X (complement) (X here stands for the head N, V, A, or P)(X here stands for the head N, V, A, or P)XPSpecifier X X ComplementHeadX Theory（X标杆理论）nXP (specifier) XnX X (complement) XP (phrase level)XSpecifier X (head) complement e.g. the dog with black earthe dog wi
11、th black earXP (NP)X Specifier(Det) head (N) complement (PP)Prep NP Adj N the dog with black ear Coordination rule（并列规则 ） ncoordinate structure并列结构: Joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, and butnCoordination并列: The phenomenon of coordinate stru
12、ctureX X *Con XFor example,For example, boys boys andand girls girls coffee coffee oror tea tea The Old Man The Old Man andand the Sea the Sea John loves Mary John loves Mary andand Mary loves John Mary loves John too.too. They sang, danced, drank, They sang, danced, drank, andand talked. talked. My
13、 little brother is My little brother is naughty naughty butbut clever clever.Phrase elementsPhrase elements 短语成分nSpecifiers 标志成分 -semantic roles 语义功能 -syntactic roles句法功能 -Determiners serve as the specifiers of Ns While qualifiers typically function as the specifiers of Vs and degree words as the sp
14、ecifiers of As and sometimes Ps.Complements 补足成分 nThe information about a words complement is included in the head and termed subcategorization(次范畴化). nThe XP Rule (revised)XP (Specifier) XP (Specifier) X X (Complement*)(Complement*) e.g. a story about a beautiful girl in India in the 1960s Compleme
15、nts 补足成分nThis rule also captures the simple but important fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.nComplementizers (补语化成分) (Cs).ncomplement clause (补语从句)ncomplement phrase (补语短语) (CP) nmatrix clause (主句) e.g. Miss Hebert believes that she will win.Modifiers Modifiers ( (修饰成分修饰成分, ,修饰语修饰语) ) n nA word or group ofA word or group of wordswords which gives which gives furth
