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1、句子语义学词和词之间有各种各样的意义关系，我们称之为 sense relation。句子也一样，可以有各种意义关系。句子语义学是在句子层面对意义进行研究，并把句子当成一个整体来看待。 Presupposition 前提/预设， 这一概念是由哲学家弗雷格（G.Frege）首先提出来的。在言语交际中，我们所说的一句句话并不是孤立的，相互之间毫无联系的。相反前一句话和后一句话往往有密切的联系。Please open the door.这句话的意思很清楚，就是“请把们打开”，但是说这句话必须有一个前提，那就是“ 现在要开的门再说话时是关着的”。所以从语义的角度来看，句子所包含的“前提”和这个句子本身的
2、意义有十份密切的关系句子的前提有这样的特点：否定了句子本身，句子的前提保留不变。John is married.John exists.John is not married. Semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition语义预设是对语句之间关系所做的逻辑分析，他面对的是一种不变的关系：即如果 P 在语义上预设 Q, 则 P 总是在语义上预设 Q。但在实际的语言活动中（语用预设） ，预设通常不是语义中稳定的不受约束的部分。这也正是有些语言学家认为预设属于语用学而不属于语义学的主要原因。一个重要的事实是，在一定的语境里，预设会消失，也就
3、是说预设具有可消失性(defeasibility) 。例如：Sue cried before she finished her thesis.Sue died before she finished her thesis. What is Semantic Presupposition?In many discussions of the concept, presupposition is treated as a relationship between two propositions by the linguists. If we say the sentence in (1a.) c
4、ontains the proposition p and the sentence in (1b.) contains the proposition q, then, usingto mean presupposes, we can represent the relationship as in (1c.).(1) a. Marys dog is cute. (p)b. Mary has a dog. (= q)c. p qInterestingly, when we produce the opposite of the sentence in (1a.) by negating it
5、 (= NOT p), as in (2a.), we find that the relationship of presupposition does not change. That is, the same proposition q, repeated as (2b.), continues to be presupposed by NOT p, as shown in (2c.).(2) a. Marys dog isnt cute. ( NOT p)b. Mary has a dog. (= q)c. NOT p qPresupposition is an inference（推
6、论）to the proposition of the sentence. Take the following sentences for example again:e.g. (3) John is married.(4) John exists.(5) John is not married.Comment: if (3) is true, (4) is true; if (3) is not true, (4) is still true. In this case, we can say both (3) and (5) presuppose (4). A presuppositio
7、n is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance. Speakers, not sentences, have presuppositions. An entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. Sentences, not speakers, have entailments. Semantic presupposition would be based o
8、n the following definition:Sentence A semantically presupposes another sentence B iff:if and only if, iff 是充分必要条件(a) in all situations where A is true, B is true(b) in all situations where A is false, B is true Types of presupposition Potential presupposition: in the analysis of how speakers assumpt
9、ions are typically expressed, presupposition has been associated with the use of a large number of words, phrases, and structures. These linguistic forms shall be considered as indicators of potential presuppositions, which can only become actual presuppositions in contexts with speakers. The follow
10、ing kinds of presuppositions are all potential presuppositions. Now well look at the major presupposition types marked by different linguistic features.Existential presupposition: presuppose the existence of something.(my). It is not only assumed to be present in possessive constructions, but more g
11、enerally in any definite descriptions such as definite noun phrase with determines the, this, that, these, those, etc. By using any of the expressions in (16), the speaker is assumed to be committed to the existence of the entities named.(16) e.g. The king of Sweden, the cat, the girl next door (Yul
12、e, 2004: 27)Factive presupposition: presuppose something as a fact.(know). A number of factive verbs, such as realize in (17a) and regret in (17b), as well as phrases involving be with aware in (17c), odd in (17d), and glad in (17e) have factive presuppositions.(17) a. She didnt realize he was ill.(
13、He was ill)b. We regret telling him. (We told him)c. I wasnt aware that she was married.( She was married)d. It isnt odd that he left early.( He left early)e. Im glad that its over.( Its over)The presupposed information following the verb know can be treated as a fact, and is described as a factive
14、presupposition. Words like know, realize, regret as well as phrases involving be with aware, odd, and glad have factive presuppositions. (Yule, 2004: 27-28) Lexical presupposition: when a specific word triggers a presupposition. It is featured by implicative verbs like manage, start, stop, forget, e
15、tc. Generally speaking, in lexical presupposition, the use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another (non-asserted) meaning is understood.Each time you say that someone managed to do something, the asserted meaning is that the person suc
16、ceeded in some way. When you say that someone didnt manage, the asserted meaning is that the person did not succeed. In both cases, however, there is a presupposition (non-asserted) that the person tried to do that something. So, managed is conventionally interpreted as asserting succeeded and presupposing tried. (18) a. He stopped smoking. (He used to smoke)b. They started com
