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1、-Pragmatic Studies (语用学专题：现代语言学研究热点之一)I. Introduction1. 1. The origin起源C. Peirce（皮尔斯），C. Morris （莫里斯）, American philosophers（30、40年代）30年代，在西方逻辑实证主义（pragmatism, W. James）的哲学流派中形成一股语言哲学思潮，自称实效（实用化）主义（pragmaticism）。哲学家把研究重心转移到人类使用的符号媒介上，进行富有哲学意义的语言研究，后发展成为符号学（semiotics）。C. Peirce首提；Morris提出三分说；Carnap支持
2、和修正，将语用学的研究范围明确为“研究使用者和词语的关系”。Three divisions of semiotics 符号学三分支理论： syntactics/syntax符号关系学（句法学）, semantics语义学, pragmatics语用学Significance of the divisions 语言学的哲学转向之后对“意义”的精确求索使自然语言捉襟见肘。语言哲学家发现了诸多不同的意义。哲学需要以语言为载体的精确的“意义”。人工语言能否取代自然语言？若不能取代，症结在哪里？1.2. Definitions定义Levinson (1983:6-27)Pragmatics is the
3、 study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized, or encoded in the structure of language. 语用学是对在一种语言中被语法化或编码的那些语言和语境之间的关系的研究。Pragmatics is the study of all those aspects of meaning not captured in a semantic theory. 语用学是对所有那些未能纳入语义理论的意义的研究。Pragmatics is the study of t
4、he ability of language users to pair sentences with the context in which they would be appropriate. 语用学是对语言使用者把句子和与之合适的语境相匹配的能力的研究。Pragmatics is the study of deixis (at least in part), implicature, presupposition, speech acts, and aspects of discourse structure. 语用学是对指示（至少是其中的一部分）、含意、预设（又作“前提”）、言语行为
5、以及话语结构等方面的研究。D. Wilson (2001:1) Pragmatics is the study of the context-dependent aspects of utterance interpretation. 语用学是对依赖语境理解话语的研究。1.3. Main features or characteristics总结：Context 语境的思想The relations between language units and the context话语与语境的互动Users, and /or their abilityIntention目的性对人类有目的的行为所作的
6、研究。（何兆熊1999：1）则广义的“有目的的行为学”，以Green所举救生员向溺水者投排球为例。1.4. Contents of pragmatics语用学的研究内容 指示语(indexical expressions):（1）John met Jack this morning. He didnt even say hello.言语行为理论(speech acts)： （2）The king of France is bald.指出（2）仅是“表述句”(constatives)的范畴，而“施为句”(performatives)往往完成一种行为:（3）I hereby name the sh
7、ip Queen Elizabeth.间接言语行为(indirect speech acts)： （4）Can you type? (Intention: I request that you do me a favor by ) （5）Its stuffy here.会话含意理论（Conversational Implicature）及合作原则(the Cooperative Principle)：（6） (a) Have you finished the reading lists and the summary writing?(b) Ive done the reading lists
8、.（7） (a) Do you like my new hat? (b) Its colorful.（8） (a) Shall we? (b) I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M-S.（9） (a) 咱们的老板真小气，加班才给这点儿钱！(b) 今天的天气不错。II. Entailment and Presupposition衍推和预设2.1. The relationship of entailment衍推关系当且仅当A为真时B也为真，B为假时A也为假，A衍推B。(1) Its been an amazing year for Crystal Palace over the past
9、 12 months.(2) So you are a house wife and a mother. Do you have any children?(3) A 我有一匹白马。B 我有一匹马。(4) A 她有三个孩子。B 她有孩子。(5) A 小张和小王结婚了。B小张结婚了。2.2. Noncancellability不可消除性衍推是一种逻辑语义的内部关系。l 我有一匹白马，但我没有一匹马。l 她有三个孩子，但她没有孩子。l Annie baked a cake, but she didnt bake anything. One-way vs. Two-way entailment单向与
10、双向衍推(6) I saw that it was raining, but I didnt see that it was raining.(7) 他写了一封信给我，但他没有写给我一封信。(8) Its a dog1, but it isnt a dog2.(9) 小张结婚了，但小张没有和小王结婚。单向衍推特征：A衍推B但B并不必然衍推A。 (11) A Baby bear cried. B Baby bear wept.(12) A Mama Bear is in front of Papa Bear. B Papa Bear in behind Mama Bear.(13) A He i
11、s an orphan. B He has no father or mother.双向衍推又称互为衍推(mutual entailment)，可以被认为是一种语义重复。2.4. 衍推的多元性一话语可以有多个衍推意义：The painter broke the window. E1: Someone broke the window. E2: The painter did something to the window. E3: The painter broke something.2.5. 衍推关系的语用意义：(14) M: Tom! You ate all the cookies! T
12、: No mum, I ate some of the cookies. (利用单向衍推表达意图)(15) Tom: Whats your stepmother like? Bob: Well shes a woman and she married my father.(利用双向衍推表达意图)(16) She is a mother, but she doesnt have any children.(利用悖论表达用意) 2.6. The relationship of presupposition预设关系当且仅当A为真时B也为真， A为假时B也为真，A预设B。(17) A Johns wi
13、fe is ill. Johns wife isnt ill. B John has a wife.(18) A 张三后悔搞语言学。张三不后悔搞语言学。B 张三搞语言学。(19) A 是他偷了我的钱包。 B 当时你又没回头，你怎么能认定是我？(20) A She sat in her sofa. B She had a sofa.2.6.1 Cancellability可消除性(21) 离婚之前张三死了。（不预设“张三后来离婚了”。）比较“离婚之前张三哭了。”（常规知识消除。）(22) 要出卖你的是/不是张三。（有人要出卖你。） 要出卖你的不是张三，也不是李四。其实谁也不想出卖你。（上下文消除
14、。）2.6.2. Projection problem投射问题（简单句扩大为复杂句，预设有时保留，有时消失。）(23) If Greene goes gambling, his wife will not be happy. (Greene has a wife.)(24) If Greene gets married, his wife will not be happy. (Greene doesnt have a wife.)2.6.3. Presupposition triggers预设触发动词：(25) John managed to open the door. (John tri
15、ed to open the door.)(26) John didnt manage to pass his exams. Indeed he didnt even try.（消除）(27) 小王忘记了关门。（小王应该关门）(28) I happened to meet her in the park. (I didnt plan to meet her in the park.)(29) He stopped smoking. (He had been smoking.)限定或修饰词语：(30) He is coming back to China. (He is not in China.)(31) 他又来了。（他来过。）短语或分句：(32) 他若不紧张，成绩会更好。（他紧张。）(33) The boys, who wanted to play football, were disappointed when it rained.(They wanted to play footballs.)(It rained.)2.7. 预设关系的语用意义Pragmatic presupposition语用预设
