《土木工程英文文献及翻译》由会员分享，可在线阅读，更多相关《土木工程英文文献及翻译（9页珍藏版）》请在金锄头文库上搜索。
1、Civil engineeringCivil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like bridges, roads, canals, dams, and buildings.123 Civil engineering is the oldest engineering disc
2、ipline after military engineering,4 and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering.5 It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, munici
3、pal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering,4 surveying, and construction engineering.6 Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual ho
4、meowners through to international companies.History of the civil engineering professionSee also: History of structural engineeringEngineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practices of Civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in
5、 Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.Until modern times there was no cl
6、ear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably.7 The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large s
7、tructure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng Tien under orders from Chin Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC)6 and th
8、e stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.In the 18th century, the term civil engineer
9、ing was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering.5 The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.46 In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders
10、 of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institut
11、ion received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external
12、and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes
13、 of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.8The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.9 The first degree in Civil Engineering in the Unit
14、ed States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.10 The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905. History of civil engineeringCivil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its histor
15、y is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology,
16、 soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.12One of the earlie
