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1、范式（paradigm）的词源以及词的本义“英文 paradigm 的词源以及词的本义”西方哲学英汉对照辞典(人民出版社) 对范式（paradigm）的解释：范式（paradigm）：源自希腊词 paradeigma，意指“模范”或“模型”。柏拉图把形式描写为范式即具有相似性的特殊对象的范式，认为人们审视范式是为了获取知识。柏拉图在国家篇里谈到，理想国或许是建立在天国里的范式；在另一篇题为蒂迈欧篇的对话里，形式即范式，具有神性的工匠凭借范式构建了感觉世界。在本世纪，美国哲学家 T. 库恩在其经典著作科学革命的结构（1962 年）中，使用“范式”一词来表示由诸多概念、假设与方法构成的框架，在此框
2、架中科学共同体的成员从事着他们的研究。当某一范式需要变化或转型时，就会发生一场科学革命。“范式转变”的概念是美国著名科学史、科学哲学家托马斯库恩( Thomas S. Kuhn，1922-1996 )在 科学革命的结构 中最早提出的 。“范式”的原文是 paradigm，来自希腊文，意指“模范”或“ 模型” 。作者在此基础上用这个词来说明科学理论发展的某种规律性，即某些重大科学成就形成科学发展中的某种模式，因而形成一定观点和方法的框架。其重要性在于：现实的重大变化往往需要概念上的创新与之相适应。如今，范式这一概念被广泛地用来描述一个时代中普遍被接受的一种广义的模型、框架、思维方式或是一种理解现
3、实的体系。在林超然先生主编的现代科学哲学教程中，对范式（paradigm）的论述是这样的：范式（paradigm ）一词来自希腊文，用在文法中，表示词形变化如名词变格和动词变位的规则。库恩借用范式一词，是想用来说明他从科学史研究中获得的关于科学发展某种规律性的模式。他认为任何一种常规科学都是一种范式。 在那本使得库恩享誉盛名的The Structure of Scientific Revolutions中，库恩说：I shall henceforth refer to as paradigms, a term that relates closely to normal science. By
4、 choosing it, I mean to suggest that somen accepted examples of actual scientific practiceexamples which include law, theory, application, and instrumentation togetherprovide models from which spring particular coherent traditions of scientific research.(p.10)The study of paradigms . is what mainly
5、prepares the student for membership in the particular scientific community with which he will later practice. (p.10-11)Paradigms gain their status because they are more successful than their competitors in solving a few problems that the group of practioners has come to recognize as acute.(p.23) To
6、discover the relation between rules, paradigms, and normal science, consider first how the historian isolates the paraticular loci of commitment that have just been described as accepted rules. Close historical investigation of a given specialty at a given time discloses a set of recurrent and quasi
7、standard illustrations of various theories in their conceptual, observational, and instrumental applications. These are the communitys paradigms, revealed in its textbooks, lectures, and laboratory exercises. (p.43) Philosophers of science have repeatedly demonstrated that more than one theoretical
8、construction can always be placed upon a given collection of data. History of science indicates that, particularly in the early developmental stages of a new paradigm, it is not even very difficult to invent such alternates. But that invention of alternates is just what scientists seldom undertake e
9、xcept during the pre-paradigm stage of their sciences development and at very special occasions during its subsequent evolution. So long as the tools a paradigm supplies continue to prove capable of solving the problems it defines, science moves fastest and penetrates most deeply through confident e
10、mployment of those tools. The reason is clear. As in manufacture so in science-retooling is anextravagance to be reserved for the occasion that demands it. The significance of crises is the indication they provide that an occasion for retooling has arrived. (p. 76) The decision to reject one paradig
11、m is always simultaneously the decision to accept another, and the judgment leading to that decision involves the comparis on of both paradigms with nature and with each other. (p. 77) Led by a new paradigm, scientists adopt new instruments and look in new places. Even more important, during revolut
12、ions scientists see new and different things when looking with familiar instruments in places they have looked before.(p. 111 )在刘放桐老师主编的新编现代西方哲学（人民出版社）中，也有对库恩“范式”理论的专门论述：库恩试图将“范式” 与科学共同体结合起来，把科学史、科学社会学、科学心理学结合起来，把科学的内史和外史结合起来，对科学发展规律作综合考察，这无疑是有意义的探索。也正因为如此，库恩的“范式”概念不仅在西方曾引起热烈的讨论，也得到普遍的承认。总之，“范式” 理论是
13、库恩哲学的创造性所在，也是库恩哲学的核心，是区别于其他哲学的本质内容。库恩为我们打开了一个观察世界的新视角。说到范式，我们不能不提到与之密切相关的另一个重要的概念“范式转换”（paradigm shift）。在论述“ 范式转换”之前，我们有必要继续考察“范式”这个概念的含义。范式实际上包括了科学共同体所共有的理论假设、研究模式、研究方法、价值标准和形而上学的原则。范式不仅是科学研究的必要条件，而且是学科成熟的标志：只有当一门学科的研究者（至少是一部分研究者）形成了共同的范式，该学科才从前科学时期进入科学时期。为了澄清对范式概念的理解，库恩写了再论范式（Second Thought on Par
14、adigms）一文，对“范式” 这个概念又重新进行了认真反省和考察。此文收录在必要的张力（The essential tension）一书中。在此文的开篇，库恩说到了读者对科学革命的结构的评论。他说：Challenged to explain the absence of an index, I regularly point out that its most frequently consulted entry would be:paradigm,1-172,passim.Critic, whether sympathetic or not, have been unanimous in
15、underscoring the large number of different senses in which the term is used.Whatever their number, the usages of paradigmin the book divide into two sets which require both different names and separate discussion. One sense of paradigm is global, embracing all the shared commitments of a scientific
16、group; the other isolates a particularly important sort of commitment and is thus a subset of the first.(p.294)他接着论述说：In the book the term paradigm enters in close proximity, both physical and logical, to the phrase scientific community. A paradigm is that the members of a scientific community, and they alone, share. Conversely, it is their possession of common paradigm that constitutes a scientific community of a group of otherwise
