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1、Lecture 3,Translation Standards,What is translation standard?,The term “ standards of translation” covers two aspects: the principle of translation and the criterion of translation. The former lays emphasis on the translator，who should follow them while translating; while the latter on the reader or
2、 critic，who may use the criteria to evaluate translation works.,In Chinese history，we have got a few influential criteria during the different ages. Early in the Tang Dynasty，the learned monk Xuan Zang（玄奘，602-664 A. D.）contributed his life to translation and put forth the criteria of translation“既须求
3、真，又须喻俗”(“must be both truthful and understandable to the populace”),In the Qing Dynasty，Yan Fu（严复，1853-1921 A. D.），a famous translator, and the first Chinese who made a penetrating and relatively systematic study of translation standard in modern times, put forth the famous three-character criteria
4、of translation“信、达、雅”（faithfulness，expressiveness and elegance）when he finished translating Henry Hexleys Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays（天演论）He once said，“译事三难：信、达、雅。求其信，已大难矣！顾信矣，不达，虽译，犹不译也，则达尚焉。” （There are three difficulties in translation：faithfulness，expressiveness and eleganceThe conside
5、ration of faithfulness is so difficult；when it is got，expressiveness is unavailable，and if one gives a version that is faithful without being expressive at the same time，the translated work is almost tantamount to nonexistence.）,Lin Yutang(林语堂) in his On Translation said that translation is an artis
6、tic operation and the criteria for its judgment should be（a）fidelity（忠实），（b）mellifluence（通顺），and（c）aesthetic quality（美）,Lu Xun（鲁迅）proposed faithfulness“信”and smoothness“顺”as the criteria of translation，and talked about the relationship between them. While sticking to his prinple “rather to be faithf
7、ul in thought than smooth in the language”, Lu xun advocated that “ a translation must have both intelligibility and the style of the original text”.,Qu Qiubai（瞿秋白）pointed out the principle of equivalent in A Letter to Mr Lu Xun给鲁迅的信）in 1931He said，“我的意见是，翻译应当把原文的本意，完全正确的介绍给中国读者，使中国读者所得到的概念等同于英俄日德法读
8、者从原文得到的概念。”（鲁迅全集二心集，人民文学出版社，1981）He thought that a translation should introduce the original meaning to Chinese readers in a completely adequate way，and enable them to get concepts equivalent to those readers of Great Britain，Russia，Japan，Germany and France extract from the original.,Fu Lei（傅雷）had h
9、is criteria of translation，spiritual conformity or resemblance in spirit “神似”，which emphasized the reproduction of the spirit or the flavor of the original. He once said,“以效果而论，翻译应当像临画一样，所求的不在形似而在神似。”（转引自刘季春实用翻译教程，中山大学出版社，1996）,Qian Zhongshu（钱钟书）advocated the criteria，sublimed adaptation or transmig
10、ration(a Buddhism term)“入化化境”，which focuses on the translators smooth and idiomatic Chinese version for the sake of Chinese readers. He thought that：文学翻译的最高标准是“化”。把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字，既能不因语文习惯的差异而露出生硬牵强的痕迹，又能完全保存原有的风味，那就算得入于“化境”。（林纾的翻译，上海古籍出版社，1979）(The highest standard of literary translation is“transm
11、igration”（“化”）A piece of writing taken from one language to another without showing strain inflicted by differences in language customs while perfectly preserving the original style can be said to be in a state of“transmigration“) That is to say，the so-called sublimed adaptation means that though th
12、e literal form of the original is converted into another，the thought，feeling，style and flavor of the original are formerly conveyed in the translation version so that the reader reads the translation version as reads the original,Professor Xu Yuanchong（许渊冲）raised his own principle of translation in
13、his book The Art of Translation(翻译的艺术，中国对外翻译出版公司，1985)He thinks that a literary translator should exploit the advantage of the target language. Now let us study his words：忠实于原文内容，通顺的译文形式，发扬译文的优势，可以当作文学翻译的标准。翻译可以不发挥译文语言的优势，但发挥了译文语言的优势的是更好的翻译。是否符合必要条件是个对错问题，是否符合充分条件却是个好坏问题。 He presents “faithfulness,
14、expessiveness and bestness”.( 信、达、优),Chinese scholar Si Guo（思果）supposed that the translation principle might be changed into Faithfulness, expressiveness and appropriateness“信、达、贴”on the basis of Yan Fus principle. The so-called faithfulness refers to the responsibility to the writer. A translator s
15、hould express the original meaning faithfully. Expressiveness means that a translator should stand beside the readers side after faithfully translating the originalThe reader should understand the translation. As for the third character，it wants to say that the translation should be proper or approp
16、riate to the original style，manner，flavor，strength etc.,Liu Zhongde（刘重德），a learned scholar in-this field，put forward a moderate revision：faithfulness（信，to be faithful to the content of the original），expressiveness（达，to be as expressive as the original）and closeness（切，to be as close to the original style as possible）,British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler（1747-1814），professor of history at Edinburgh University，published his milestone book Essay on the
