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1、第七章 採購與委外策略Procurement and Outsourcing Strategies供 應 鏈 管 理Supply Chain Management委外(1)在1990年代,委外(Outsourcing)是許多製造業公司的焦點:An “easy way” to increase profits:企業考慮把每一個原本自行生產製造的功能都採取委外的方式Nike, Cisco, Apple outsource most of their manufacturingEach could focus on research and marketing例如運動鞋產業是一個需要在產品科技上花費
2、大量投資的產業Nike 公司幾乎把所有的製造功能都委外出去,它則只專注於兩件事情上:研發,以及行銷、銷售、配銷委外(2)然而,耐吉、思科及那些極度倚靠委外(特別是製造功能)的公司而言,眼前的榮景似乎已經不再很清楚地,耐吉、蘋果電腦及思科公司所處的產業特性,正是產品生命週期短、科技進步快速、及消費者需求的不確定性大2001 Nike reported unexpected profit shortfalls due to inventory problems2000 Cisco had to write down billions in obsolete inventory1999 Apple
3、was unable to meet customer demand for new products委外利益與風險綜觀整個90年代,策略性委外 指將關鍵零組件的製造給委外出去的行為 被用來當作一個可以快速降低成本的工具刺激委外行為增加的因素(1)規模經濟(Economies of Scale Reduce Manufacturing Costs)委外的重要目的之一,就是透過許多買家所集合的訂單,來降低製造成本風險共擔(Risk Pooling Demand Uncertainties are Transferred)委外讓買方可以將需求的不確定性轉移到CEM(Contract Equipme
4、nt Manufacturers,契約設備製造商)上而CEM的好處是,由於其訂單來自許多公司,可以透過風險共擔的效果來降低不確定性減少資本投資(Reduced Capital Investment)除了把需求的不確定性轉移到CEM身上外,委外的另一個重要目的,就是把資本投資也轉移到CEM身上刺激委外行為增加的因素(2)聚焦在核心競爭力上(Focus on Core Competencies)選擇了委外的功能後,企業就可以把焦點放在其核心能力上所謂的核心能力,指的是該公司所擁有的特殊天賦、技能與知識,而這些能力在顧客眼中使該企業與競爭者有所不同,而具有相對優勢增加彈性(Increased Fle
5、xibility)較佳的回應顧客需求改變的能力利用供應商的技術來加快產品研發週期時間的能力獲得新技術及創新的能力委外行為的兩大風險(1)競爭知識的喪失(Loss of Competitive Knowledge)將重要組件委外給供應商,就等同於給競爭者機會相同地,委外之後,公司就失去了100%以自己的想法去導入新設計的能力,而亦須參酌供應商的想法最後,將重要組件委外給不同的供應商,也就失去了一些傳統上必須團隊合作才可行的發展,如新的想法、創新及整體解決方案等委外行為的兩大風險(2)目標衝突(Conflicting Objectives)供應商和買家的目標常是不同且互相衝突的Flexibilit
6、y vs. long-term, stable commitments, etc.例如,買家把各種零件委外出去的主要目的,就是要增加彈性,買家可以透過生產力的調整,讓供需之間能夠更為吻合。不幸地,這個目的和供應商希望買家可以承諾長期、穩定的訂單相衝突 在產品設計的議題上,買家與供應商之間也有目標衝突:買家希望有彈性,希望可以盡快解決問題供應商的焦點在讓成本降低,而這暗示對設計改變的回應力較慢企業委外的原因對產能的依賴(Dependency on Capacity)在這一類裡,企業本身具有製造組件所必須的專業知識及技巧,因為其他的因素而決定委外對知識的依賴(Dependency on Knowl
7、edge)在這一類裡,企業並沒有製造產品或組件所必要的人員、技術及專業知識,故將其委外以補其不足即使如此,企業仍需具備評估顧客需求的技巧和知識,並將之轉換為產品應有的主要特徵及要求產品結構(1)當我們要決定該委外何種產品前,應該對產品結構有更深層的了解為了更了解自己的產品結構,將產品區分為整體性(Integral)產品及模組化(Modular)產品模組化產品Modular Products Independent Components模組化產品指的是藉由結合不同零組件所製造出來的產品個人電腦就是一個模組化產品最好的例子模組化產品的定義:零組件之間互相獨立零組件是可以替換的使用標準化的介面零組件
8、可以在幾乎不考慮其他組件的情形下升級顧客的偏好決定該產品的結構整體性產品Integral Products Components are Tightly Related整體性產品指的是由各個彼此緊密相關的零組件所結合而成的產品Designed as a systemNot off-the-shelf componentsEvaluated based on system performance整體性產品的特徵:整體性產品並非由現成的組件所組合而成整體性產品被視為一個系統,從整體到細節全面考量所設計出來的產物整體性產品是以系統效能來做評價,而非零組件的效能在整體性產品中,零組件可以有多重功能產品
9、結構(2)在現實生活中,幾乎沒有全然100%的整體性或模組化產品,多是落在光譜兩端之間光譜的一端是高度模組化產品(如個人電腦);另一端則是高度整體性產品(如飛機)汽車包含了很多模組化的零組件,如音響和其它電子系統;但也有很多整體性的零組件,如引擎產 品對知識及產能都依賴供應商對供應商不依賴知識,依賴產能對知識及產能都不依賴供應商模組化產品模組化產品 委外有風險委外是一個機會透過委外有降低成本的機會整體性產品整體性產品委外有非常大的風險可委外,可不委外繼續原來的自治決策自製/外購決策架構(1)自製/外購決策架構(2)此架構包含兩個構面:公司產品是模組化/整體性產品,以及公司對知識及產能的依賴性對
10、模組化產品而言,掌握知識是重要的,至於有沒有自製產能就顯得次要如果公司本身有這樣的知識,將製造階段委外就有成本降低的機會如果公司既沒有產能,也沒有專業知識,委外就會是十分危險的策略。因為由供應商所發展出來的知識,很有可能會轉移到競爭對手的產品上對整體性產品而言如果公司既有知識也有產能,則自製會是適當的策略如果公司兩者均無,則該公司也許進到不該進的產業了電子化採購(e-Procurement)1990年代中期的商業環境在那個時期,許多的製造商極度渴望能將採購功能委外出去,他們認為,採購過程是非常複雜、需要高度專業、而且成本非常高自1990年代中期至末期,B2B商業自動化已被視為一股潮流,並深刻影
11、響到供應鏈的績效1998年至2000年間,在各個產業都興起了數以百計的電子市集(e-markets),如化學業、鋼鐵業、公用事業及人力仲介業這些電子市集強調,他們可以讓你更廣泛地接觸到買家及供應商、降低購買成本及達到無紙化交易的境界電子市集所提供的價值提供了採購流程的專業知識及大量的供應商 做為買家及供應商之間的媒介 找出節省成本的機會 在拍賣喊價的過程中增加自己供應商的資料庫 找到供應商,確認其是否合乎自己的需求,並給予必要的支援代為處理拍賣、出價事宜電子市集如何獲利交易手續費(Transaction Fee)由買家、供應商,或雙方來支付,通常是由買家支付手續費是交易價的固定比例,視市集的不
12、同由1%至5%不等 授權費(Licensing Fee)指的是市集將其軟體授權給企業使用,讓企業可以透過軟體自動連上市集會員費(Subscription Fee)則是電子市集依照公司大小、使用系統的員工人數及成交筆數,作為向會員收取費用的依據電子市集的型態(1)加值型獨立(公開)電子市集(Value-Added Independent or Open e-Markets)They are expanding their offering to include inventory management and financial services (Zoho); supply chain pla
13、nning (Covisint, e2open, Converge, TheSupply)私有電子市集(Private e-Markets)D (Dell), eHub (Cisco), IBM, Sun Microsystems and Wal-MartThese companies use the marketplace to improve supply chain collaboration Providing suppliers with demand information and production data電子市集的型態(2)聯盟型電子市集(Consortia-Based e
14、-Markets)Covisint (automotive), Trade-Ranger (oil), Omnexus (chemicals), e2Open and Converge (high-tech)Objective of the consortia isAggregate activities and use the buying power of consortia membersProvide suppliers with standard systems that support all buyers and allows suppliers to reduce cost內容
15、型電子市集(Content-Based e-Markets)Focus on Maintenance, Repair and Operations (MRO) goodsThese are components that are not part of the finished product or the manufacturing process but are essential for the businessExamples include lighting, office supply, fasteners, Value-Added Independent or Open e-Ma
16、rkets: ExampleI focuses on the food service industry and provides an infrastructure which links together operators, i.e., restaurants, distributors and manufacturers. This e-marketplace provides value to its customers by offering not only procurement services, but also forecasting, collaboration and
17、 replenishment tools.私有電子交易市集私有電子交易市集公開公開/聯盟型電子市集聯盟型電子市集擁有者擁有者由單一買家所擁有獨立經營,或由來自同一產業的一群公司共同經營目的目的分享市集擁有者的資料作物流及供應鏈的協作以價格取向的觀點買賣商品尋找新的供應商買賣多餘的存貨及產能參與者參與者篩選過的供應商群公開市場,全面開放買方的成本買方的成本網站的建置及維持費用會員費、授權費、交易手續費供應商的成本供應商的成本無需手續費用交易手續費、會員費主要的問題主要的問題初期投資過大資料常規化及上傳的問題近來許多電子市集倒閉因為強調價格競爭,遭一些供應商抗拒分享專屬性資料資料常規化及上傳問題公
18、開電子市集與私有電子市集的比較Private vs Consortium-Based Public Markets (1)OwnerSingle vs Co-OpObjectivePrivate: (i) Share proprietary data (ii) allow for SC CollaborationConsortia: (i) Buying/selling commodities (ii) Finding new suppliers ParticipantsPrivate: Selected group of suppliersConsortia: Open MarketBuye
19、r CostPrivate: Building and maintaining the siteConsortia: Subscription fee; licensing feePrivate vs Consortium-Based Public Markets (2)Supplier CostPrivate: No feeConsortia: Subscription fee; Transaction feeChallengesPrivate: Initial investmentConsortia: (i) Many have recently collapsed; (ii) prefe
20、rred suppliers may object because of price focus; (iii) Sharing proprietary data (iv) developing standardsE-Procurement: The Reality(1)Automotive IndustryCovisint was established in early 2000 by the Detroits big three automakersIt now also includes Renault, Nissan, Mitsubishi and PegeotVolkswagen e
21、stablished its own private e-marketVolkswagen e-market provides not only similar capabilities to that of Covisint but also real-time information on production plans so that suppliers can better utilize resourcesE-Procurement: The Reality(2)Companies conducting greater than 20% of procurement transac
22、tions online have reduced their transaction processing cost by nearly a third (Hackett Benchmarking)Product savings and process cost improvements effect operating cost by 10% (Credit Suisse First Boston Technology Group)企業採購產品的分類為使決策者可以有效規劃適當產品的採購策略,先將企業採購的產品作以下分類:策略性零組件(Strategic Components)Part of
23、 the finished product Not only industry specific; but also company specificExamples: PC motherboard and chassis大眾產品(Commodity Products)Can be purchased from a large number of suppliersPrice is determined by market forcesExamples: Memory unit in a PC間接性物料(Indirect Materials)MRO(Maintenance, Repair, a
24、nd Operation)電子化採購的風險適當的採購策略顯然取決於採購產品類型和企業所願承擔的風險水準這個風險是與下列因素有關:Uncertain Demand (Inventory Risk):需求不確定性,代表存貨的風險Volatile Market Price (Price Risk):市價變動,代表價格的風險Component Availability (Shortage Risk):零組件供應力,代表缺貨的風險,會對企業滿足顧客需求的能力產生衝擊Risk: Commodity ProductsCan be purchased eitherin the open market thro
25、ugh on-line auction, orthrough the use of long term contractsLong term contracts guarantee certain level of supply but may be risky for the buyerInventory risk, shortage risk or price risk電子化採購策略(1)間接性物料(Indirect Material)Typically low risk and hence the focus is on content based hubs(內容性市集)The obje
26、ctive is to use an MRO-hub that specializes in unifying catalogues from many suppliersExamples: MRO.com, Grainger on-line catalogues電子化採購策略(2)策略性零組件(Strategic Components)Typically high risk components that can be purchased from a small number of suppliersThe objective is to use private or consortia-
27、based e-marketplace(私有或聯盟型電子市集)The focus is on an e-marketplace that allow collaboration with the suppliersConsortia or Private?Transaction volumeNumber of suppliersCost of building and maintaining the siteThe importance of protecting proprietary business practicesTechnology and product life cycles電
28、子化採購策略(3)大眾產品(Commodity Products)Products go directly into finished goodsHigh riskMany potential options to choose fromSpot Purchasing策略組合長期合約(Long-Term Contracts)Buyer and supplier commit to certain volume (called the base commitment level)Supplier guarantees a level of supply for a committed price
29、彈性合約或稱選擇權合約(Flexible or Option Contracts)Buyer pre-pay a relatively small fraction of the product price up-front, in return for a commitment from the supplier to satisfy demand up to a certain level (called the option level)The buyer can purchase any amount up to the option level by paying additional price for each unit purchased現貨採購(Spot Purchasing)存貨風險(供應商)N/A*價格及缺貨風險(買方)存貨風險(買方)基本承諾量(Commitment Level)低低高高選擇水準(Option Level)*在任一情境下,選擇水準和基本承諾量只會一個較高,不會同時都高。組合契約中的風險互抵關係