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1、Tort LawGeneralTortlacivilwrongwhichunfairlycausessomeoneelsetosufferlossorharmItdoesnotincludebreachofcontractortrust.(Acivilwrongcanbeatort,breachofcontractorbreachoftrust.)PurposeoftortlawltoproviderelieftotheinjuredpartythroughtheawardofdamagesfortheinjuriesincurredduringatortiousactGeneralltode
2、terothersfromcommittingthesameactUStortlawlTortlawintheU.S.islargelycommonlaw.Courtshavethepowertoshapeandchangetheelementsofclaimsanddefensesofexistingtortsandthepowertocreatenewtorts.lStatuteshavebeenpassedinattemptstoreformthetortsystem.GeneralMostofthemhaverelatedtoproceduralmattersandamountsand
3、categoriesofdamages.lManyjudgesutilizetheRestatement of Torts(2nd)asaninfluentialguide.TheRestatementisaninfluentialtreatiseissuedbytheAmericanLawInstitute,whichsummarizesthegeneralprinciplesofcommonlawUnitedStatestortlaw.CategoriesoftortslintentionaltortsGenerallnegligencelstrictliabilitytortsInten
4、tional TortsGeneralDefinitionlAnintentionaltortisatortresultingfromanintentionalactonthepartofthetortfeasor.SubcategoriesltortsagainstthepersonassaultbatteryfalseimprisonmentintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistressGenerallpropertytortstrespasstolandtrespasstochattels(personalproperty)conversionldign
5、itarytortsdefamationinvasionofprivacy TortsAgainstthePersonAssaultDefinitionlanintentionalactthatcausesanapprehensionofimmediateharmfuloroffensivecontactApprehensionisnotthesameasfearhereitmeansawarenessthataninjuryoroffensivecontactisimminent.RequirementslTheactmustbeovert.Merewordsdonotconstitutea
6、nassault.AssaultTheremustbeanaccompanyingact.lThedefendantmusthavetheapparentabilitytocarryoutthecontact.Actualabilitytocarryoutthecontactisnotnecessary.lTheplaintiffmusthaveareasonableapprehensionofsuchcontact.Actualfearontheplaintiffspartisnotrequired.ExamplesAssaultlswingingabaseballbatatsomeonel
7、holdingarockandthreateningtothrowitatsomeonelpointingagunatsomeonelpointingarealistictoygunatsomeoneCriminalassaultandtortiousassaultlCriminalassaultcanoccurevenwhennothreatisperceivedbythevictim.lWiththetortofassault,aperceivedthreatbythevictimisparamount.AssaultAdefendantwhothrowsarockatasleepingv
8、ictimandmissescanonlybeguiltyoftheattemptedbatteryassault,sincethevictimwouldnotbeawareofthepossibleharm.BatteryDefinitionlanintentionalactthatcausesaharmfuloroffensivecontactHarmfulcontactlcontactthatobjectivelyintendstoinjure,disfigure,impair,orcausepainOffensivecontactlcontactthatwouldoffendapers
9、onssenseofpersonaldignityBatteryExampleslbeatingsomeonewithatireironlspittinginsomeonesfacelknockingahatoffsomeonesheadlwhippingahorseonwhichsomeonewasriding,causinghimtofallandbeinjuredlmixingsomethingoffensiveinfoodthatheknowsanotherwilleattheotherdoesinfacteattheoffensivematterBatteryldiggingapit
10、withtheintentthatanotherwillfallintoitlatertheotherdoesinfactfallintoitCriminalandtortiousbatterylUsuallybatteryisprosecutedasacrimeonlyincasesinvolvingseriousharmtothevictim.Criminallawrecognizesdegreesofcrimesinvolvingphysicalcontact.Thereisbutasingletortofbattery.False ImprisonmentDefinitionlthed
11、etentionofapersoninaboundedareawithoutjustificationorconsentTheessenceofthetortisthenaturalmentalharmthatresultswhenonesfreedomisrestrictedwithoutjustification.ElementslintenttoconfineapersonwithinacertainareaFalse Imprisonmentlactualconfinementlawarenessoftheconfinementbythepersonsoconfinedlnoreaso
12、nablemeansofescapeFalsearrestlFalsearrestoccurswhensomeonearrestsanotherindividualwithoutthelegalauthoritytodoso,whichbecomesfalseimprisonmentthemomentheorsheistakenintocustody.IIEDDefinitionshortforintentional infliction of emotional distressreferredtoasthe tort of outrageinsomejurisdictionslintent
13、ionalconductthatresultsinextremeemotionaldistressElementslThedefendantmustactintentionallyorrecklessly.IIEDlThedefendantsconductmustbeextremeandoutrageous.lTheconductmustcausetheplaintifftosuffersevereemotionaldistress.SevereemotionaldistresslThistortinvolvesmorethanhurtfeelings,disappointment,orwor
14、ry.lTheremustbeseverementalsuffering,i.e.suchthatnoreasonablepersonshouldbeexpectedtoendureit.IIEDThisstandardisquantifiedbytheintensity,duration,andanyphysicalmanifestations(ulcersorheadaches,forexample)ofthedistress.ExampleslApersonrefusedtoinformanotherofthewhereaboutsofthatotherschildforseveraly
15、ears,thoughthepersonknewwherethechildwastheentiretime.IIEDlApersonsentalettertoanotherfalselyinforminghimthataclosefamilymemberofhishadbeenkilledinanaccident.Statute of LimitationsDefinitionlanenactmentthatrestrictsthetimewithinwhichlegalproceedingsmaybeinitiatedObjectiveltopreventclaimsfromarisinga
16、fterallevidencehasbeenlostorafterthefactshavebecomeobscurethroughthepassageoftime,orthedeathordisappearanceofwitnessesStatute of LimitationsFunctionlThestatuteoflimitationsisadefensethatisordinarilyassertedbythedefendanttodefeatanactionbroughtagainsthimaftertheappropriatetimehaselapsed.ApplicationlT
17、hedefendantmustraisethedefensebeforethecourtuponansweringtheplaintiffscomplaint.Statute of LimitationslIfnot,heisregardedashavingwaivedthedefenseandwillnotbepermittedtouseitinanysubsequentproceedings.TollingthestatutelWhenthestatuteistolled,therunningoflimitationsissuspendeduntilsomeeventspecifiedby
18、lawtakesplace.Mostjurisdictionsprovidethatthestatuteoflimitationsistolledundercertaincircumstances:Statute of LimitationsTheplaintiffisaminor.Theplaintiffhasbeendeemedinsane.Theplaintiffhasbeenconvictedofafelonyandisimprisoned.Thedefendantisinbankruptcy.Shopkeepers PrivilegeGenerallInsomejurisdictio
19、nsoftheUS,thecourtsrecognizeacommonlawshopkeepersprivilege,underwhichashopkeeperisallowedtodetainasuspectedshoplifteronstorepropertyforareasonableperiodoftime,solongastheshopkeeperhasprobablecausetobelievethatthepersondetainedinfactcommitted,orattemptedtocommit,theftofstoreproperty.Shopkeepers Privi
20、legeThisprivilegedoesnotincludethepowerofsearch.RequisiteconditionslInvestigationonornearpremisesThedetentionitselfshouldbeeffectedeitheronthestorepremisesorintheimmediatevicinitythereof.lReasonablesuspicionTheshopkeeperhasreasonablegroundstosuspecttheparticularpersondetainedisshoplifting.Shopkeeper
21、s PrivilegelReasonableforceonlyOnlyreasonable,non-deadlyforceisusedtoeffectthedetention.lReasonableperiodandmannerofdetentionThedetentionitselfmaybeforonlythetimenecessarytomakeareasonableinvestigationofthefacts.PropertyTortsTrespass to LandGenerallTrespasstolandoccurswhenapersondirectlyentersuponan
22、otherslandwithoutpermission,orremainsupontheland,orplacesorprojectsanyobjectupontheland.lThebasisforthistortistherighttoexclusivepossessionoftheland.NaturelThistortisactionable per se.Trespass to LandDamagesarenotrequiredtobeprovenforintentionaltrespass.Onlywhentheentryisnegligentisthereanyneedtopro
23、vedamages.IntentlTheintentrequirementoftrespassisonlythatthepersonintendedtoentertheproperty.Itisirrelevantwhetherornottheentryisamistake,causedbyignoranceoftheownershiportheboundaries.Trespass to LandNotelTherightsinherentinthepossessionoflandextendaboveandbelowthesurface.Trespass to ChattelsDefini
24、tionltheintentionalinterferencewithanotherpersonslawfulpossessionofachattel(movablepersonalproperty)Interferencelanyphysicalcontact(intermeddling)withthechattelinaquantifiablewaylanydispossessionofthechattel(whetherbytakingit,destroyingit,orbarringtheownersaccesstoit)Trespass to ChattelsNotelIncases
25、ofintermeddling,thereneedstobeactualharmsustainedbytheplaintiffinorderforhimtosue.Damagesarelimitedtotheactualharm(whichcanincludeeconomiclossasaresultofthetrespasse.g.lossofprofitonadamagedchattel).lIncasesofdispossession,theplaintiffisalwaysentitledtodamagesevenifnoquantifiableharmcanbeproven.Tres
26、pass to ChattelsExamplelHermanseeshisWar and Peacesittingonatable.Hepicksupthebook,putsitinhisbagandgoeshome.Infact,thebookbelongstoLeonandHermanhasmistakenitforhisowncopy.lInthiscase,HermanisliableforatrespasstochattelsbecauseheintendedtotakeLeonsbook,eventhoughhisactionwasbasedonareasonablemistake
27、.ConversionGenerallConversionoccurswhensomeonewrongfullytakesorusespropertyofanotherfortheirownpurposesordestroysitoraltersitsnature.ConversionandtheftlTheftwillalsobeconversion.lButnotallconversionsaretheftsbecauseconversionrequiresnoelementofdishonesty.ConversionPropertysubjecttoconversionlItmustb
28、epersonalproperty.Realpropertycannotbelostandthenfound.lItmustbetangible.money,ananimal,furniture,ortoolscropsortimber(aftertheyareseveredfromtheground)rightsinapaper,suchasalifeinsurancepolicy,astockcertificate,orapromissorynoteConversionExampleslApersonhasanotherscartowedawayinordertotaketheparkin
29、gplace.lAdrycleanermistakenlydeliversasuittothewrongcustomer.lAmechanicborrowsasportscarheissupposedtorepairwithoutpermission.lAneighborlendsherhedgetrimmertoafriend,butthefriendusesittocutdownatree.Trespass to Chattels and ConversionGenerallThetwoconceptsarecloselyrelated.SimilaritylBothincludethew
30、rongful,intentionalinterferenceofpersonalproperty.DifferencelTheyaredifferentindegreethedamagedonetotheplaintiffspossessioninaconversioncaseismoreseverethaninatrespasscase.Trespass to Chattels and ConversionApplicationlIngeneral,whenanobjectisdamagedbutrepairable,trespasstochattelsisthemoreappropria
31、tetort.Whensomethingisdestroyedorstolen,conversionismoreappropriate.lWhentrespassisfound,apersoncanrecoverthevalueofthelostuseoftheitemandrecovertheitemitself.Conversion,instead,allowsapersontorecoverthefullvalueoftheitem.Trespass to Chattels and ConversionExamplelDaphnehitsMartysdogwithhercar.Thedo
32、gsuffersabrokenleg.ThiswouldbeanactionabletrespasstochattelsandMartywouldbeawardeddamagescommensuratewiththeharmdonebyDaphne.lDaphnehitsMartysdogwithhercar.Thedogdies.Thiswouldbeanactionableconversion.Martywouldbeawardedthedogsfullvalue.DignitaryTortsDefamationDefinitionlthecommunicationofafalsestat
33、ementthatharmsapersonsreputationDefamatoryinformationmustbecommunicatedtoathirdperson.Typeslslanderoraldefamation(spokenstatements)llibelwrittendefamation(written,printedorbroadcastwords)DefamationPublicfigurelawofdefamationlApublicfigurealleginglibelmustproveactualmalice.Publicfiguresvoluntarilypla
34、cethemselvesinapositionthatinvitesclosescrutiny.Defamationper selSomecategoriesofstatementsareconsidereddefamatoryper seinjuryispresumedandneedntbeproven.Defamationastatementthatnegativelyaffectsapersonsreputationrelatingtohisbusinessorprofessionallegationsthatapersonisunchasteallegationsthataperson
35、isinfectedwithasexuallytransmitteddiseaseallegationsthatapersonhascommittedacrimeofmoralturpitude(suchasrapeorincest)DefensestoclaimsofdefamationltruthDefamationlopinionlprivilegeevidencegivenincourtstatementsmadeinasessionofthelegislatureInvasion of PrivacyDefinitionltheintrusionintothepersonallife
36、ofanother,withoutjustcauseCategorieslintrusionofsolitudeactualphysicalorelectronicintrusionintoapersonsprivatequartersApersonwasundressingathome,andsomeonefilmedthiswithouttellingtheperson.Invasion of Privacylpublicdisclosureofprivatefactsthedisseminationoftruthfulprivateinformationwhichareasonablep
37、ersonwouldfindobjectionableAnunscrupulousreporterrummagedthroughapublicfiguresgarbagetofindevidenceofprescriptiondruguseorotherhighlypersonalmatters.lfalselightthepublicationoffactswhichplaceapersoninafalselight,eventhoughthefactsthemselvesmaynotbedefamatoryInvasion of PrivacyFalselightcasesareabout
38、damagetoapersonspersonalfeelingsordignity,whereasdefamationisaboutdamagetoapersonsreputation.Areporterreturnedtothesceneofamassivebridgecollapseseveralyearsafterthetragedy.Thereporterattemptedtointerviewthewidowofamanwhodiedinthecrash.Thewidowandherchildrenwerenotathomesothereporterfabricatedastorya
39、boutthemwhichplacedtheminafalselightinthepubliceye.Invasion of PrivacylappropriationtheunauthorizeduseofapersonsnameorlikenesstoobtainsomebenefitsAlocalrestaurantusedacelebritysnameorimageinacommercialandimpliedanofficialendorsement.NegligenceGeneralDefinitionlconductthatbreachesastandardofcaredeeme
40、dbythelawasnecessarytoprotectothersfromunreasonablerisksofharmgenerallyexpressedasabreachofadutyElementslThedefendantowedadutyofcaretotheplaintiff;Generallthedefendantbreachedthatduty;andlasaresultofthedefendantsbreachofthatduty,theplaintiffsufferedinjury.Standard of CareGenerallAllpeopleareunderadu
41、tytoconductthemselvesinsuchamannerasnottocreateunreasonablerisksofphysicalharmtoothers.lDuringatrial,theconductofthedefendantisreviewedtodetermineifheorshehasmetthereasonablepersonstandard.Wouldareasonablepersonhaveactedsimilarlyundersimilarcircumstances?Standard of CareReasonablepersonlahypothetica
42、lpersoninsocietywhoshowsaveragecare,skillorjudgmentinconductItisnotanaverageortypicalperson.Itisacompositeofacommunitysjudgmentastohowatypicalmemberofthatcommunityshouldbehaveinsituationsthatmightposeathreatofharmtothepublic.Standard of CareEventhoughthemajorityofpeopleinthecommunitymaybehaveinacert
43、ainway,thatdoesnotestablishthestandardofconductofthereasonableperson.ReasonablepersonstandardlApersonhasactednegligentlyifshehasdepartedfromconductexpectedofareasonablyprudentpersonactingundersimilarcircumstances.Standard of CareItisacompletelyobjectivetestunderwhichsubjectiveelementsarenormallynott
44、akenintoaccount.Subjectivetraitsofthetortfeasormaybeconsidered,buttheyareconsideredaccordingtoanobjectivestandard.CausationGenerallToestablishcausationinnegligencecasestheplaintiffmustprovethatthedefendantsactwasboththecause-in-factandtheproximatecauseofhisinjuries.Cause-in-factlThebut-fortestWouldt
45、heplaintiffhavebeeninjuredbutfortheactofthedefendant?CausationlThesubstantialfactortestWasthedefendantsactionasubstantialfactorincausingtheplaintiffsinjury?ProximatecauselThedirectnesstestThedefendantsactistheproximatecauseoftheplaintiffsinjuryifthereisanunbrokensequenceofeventsbetweentheactandtheha
46、rm.lTheforeseeabilitytestCausationItissufficientifareasonablepersonwouldhaveforeseentheharmfulresults.InterveningcauselaneventwhichoccursafterthedefendantsnegligentacthasoccurredandwhichcontributestotheinjuryIftheinterveningcausewastheproximatecauseoftheplaintiffsinjury,thedefendantsactwillnotbecons
47、ideredtheproximatecause.CausationIftheinterveningcausewasforeseeable,thedefendantwilloftenbeheldliableforthisadditionalharm.NIEDGenerallshortfornegligentinflictionofemotionaldistresslacontroversialcauseofactionlavailableinnearlyallUSstatesbutseverelyconstrainedandlimitedinthemajorityofthemNIEDandIIE
48、DlInanactionforNIEDthereisnoneedtoproveintenttoinflictdistress.NIEDlAnaccidentalinfliction,ifnegligent,issufficienttosupportacauseofaction.UnderlyingconceptlOnehasalegaldutytousereasonablecaretoavoidcausingmentaldistresstoanotherindividual.lIfonebreachesthisdutyandunreasonablycausesmentaldistresstoa
49、notherindividual,hewillbeliablefordamagestotheinjuredindividual.Contributory NegligenceDefinitionladefensethatbarsaplaintifffromrecoveryifhisorherownactsoromissionscontributetotheinjuryBurdenofprooflInsomejurisdictions,thedefendanthastoprovethenegligenceoftheplaintifforclaimant.lInothers,theburdenis
50、ontheplaintifftodisprovehisownnegligence.Contributory NegligenceDisadvantagelItisoftenregardedasunfairbecauseunderthedoctrineavictimwhoisatfaulttoanydegree,includingonly1%atfault,willbedeniedcompensationentirely.ResultlIthasbeendeletedasadefensefromthevastmajorityofstatutesandreplacedwithcomparative
51、negligence.Comparative NegligenceDefinitionladefensethatreducestheamountofdamagesthataplaintiffcanrecoverinanegligence-basedclaimbaseduponthedegreetowhichtheplaintiffsownnegligencecontributedtotheinjuryTypeslPurecomparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffis90%atfaultheorshecanstillrecover10%ofhislosses.Compar
52、ative NegligencelPartialcomparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffismorethan50%atfaultheorshecannotrecover.Assumption of RiskDefinitionladefensethatbarsaplaintifffromrecoveryagainstanegligenttortfeasoriftheplaintiffvoluntarilyandknowinglyassumedtherisksinherenttotheactivityinwhichheparticipatedRationalelUpon
53、assumptionoftherisk,thereisnolongeradutyofcarerunningfromthedefendanttotheplaintiff.Assumption of RisklWithoutadutyowedbythedefendant,therecanbenonegligenceonhispart.ClassificationslExpressassumptionofriskoccurswhenaplaintiffexplicitlyagreestotakeonarisk.Thisisoftendonethroughacontract.lImpliedassum
54、ptionofriskoccurswhentheplaintiffsactionsimplythathehasconsentedtoassumetherisk.Assumption of RiskExamplelJoebrokehisarmwhenhefellintoamanholewhilewalkingdownthestreetinatown.Theareawherethemanholewashadbeenropedoffandlargesignspostedwarningpedestrianstoavoidit.lInitsdefense,thetownmayraisethedoctri
55、neofassumptionofrisk.StrictLiabilityTortsGeneralStrictliabilitylStrictliabilityisliabilitywithoutfault(suchasnegligenceortortiousintent).Undercertaincircumstances,aplaintiffmaybeallowedrecoveryevenifthereisnofaultonthepartofthedefendant.ApplicationlStrictliabilityisoftenimposedonthoseengagedinabnorm
56、allydangerousactivities.GenerallStrictliabilityisalsoimposedonsellersandmanufacturersofproducts.Abnormally Dangerous ActivityDefinitionlanactivitythatissoinherentlydangerousthatapersonengagedinitcanbeheldstrictlyliableforinjuriescausedtoanotherperson,evenifhehastakeneveryreasonableprecautiontopreven
57、tothersfrombeinginjuredalsotermedinherentlydangerousactivityorultrahazardousactivityCategoriesAbnormally Dangerous ActivitylTransportation,storage,anduseofultrahazardousmaterialsdynamiteandotherexplosivesradioactivematerialscertainhazardouschemicalslKeepingofdangerousanimalswildanimals(i.e.animalsth
58、atarenotnormallydomesticatedinthatarea)domesticatedanimalsthathaveaknown propensityfordangerousbehavior(e.g.,adogthathasattackedpeoplebefore)Abnormally Dangerous ActivityTheseactivitiesareallowableaslongasnoharmoccurs.ExceptionlApersonwhoisinjuredbyoneoftheseactivitieswhiletrespassingonthepropertyof
59、thepersonengagedintheactivityisbarredfromsuingunderastrictliabilitytheory.lInstead,heorshemustprovethatthepropertyownerwasnegligent.Product LiabilityDefinitionltheresponsibilityofamanufacturerorvendorofgoodstocompensateforinjurycausedbydefectivemerchandisethatithasprovidedforsaleProductliabilityclai
60、msintheUSlnegligenceclaimslstrictliabilityclaimslbreachofwarrantyclaimslvariousconsumerprotectionclaimsProduct LiabilityStrictliabilityclaimslGeneralStrictliabilityisappliedcommonlytodangerouslydefectiveproducts.Themanufacturerandanysellerofaproductcanbeheldliableeveniftheyhaveexercisedallreasonable
61、careinproductionandsaleoftheproduct.lLimitationsItappliesonlytomerchantsellerssellerswhoregularlydealintheproduct.Product LiabilityTheproductmustnothavebeenalteredafteritleftthesellerscontrolandmustbeusedinanormalandpropermanner.lDefenseThedefenseusuallyraisedinstrictliabilityproductscasesismisuseof
62、theproduct.lTheplaintiffinjuredhimselfbyusinganelectrichedgetrimmertocuthishair.Iftheparticularmisusewasaforeseeableone,thedefendantwillusuallybeliable.lstandingonachairNuisanceGeneralDefinitionlsomethingthatcausesoffence,damage,annoyance,orinconvenienceThelawofnuisancelThelawofnuisancewascreatedtos
63、topsuchbothersomeactivitiesorconductwhentheyunreasonablyinterferedeitherwiththerightsofotherprivatelandownersorwiththerightsofthegeneralpublic.GeneralUnderthecommonlaw,personsinpossessionofrealpropertyareentitledtothequietenjoymentoftheirlands.Ifaneighborinterfereswiththatquietenjoyment,theaffectedp
64、artymaymakeaclaiminnuisance.TypeslPrivatenuisanceacivilwronglPublicnuisanceacriminalwrongPrivate NuisanceDefinitionlconductthatinterfereswithapersonsuseorquietenjoymentofhislandCategorieslinterferencewiththephysicalconditionofthelanditselfvibrationorblastingthatdamagesahousethepollutionofsoil,astrea
65、m,oranundergroundwatersupplyPrivate Nuisancelinterferencewiththehealth,comfort,orconvenienceofanoccupantfoulodorsnoxiousgasessmokedustloudnoisesexcessivelighthightemperaturesrepeatedtelephonecallsPrivate Nuisanceldisturbanceofanoccupantsmentaltranquilityacontagiousdiseasehospitalstoredexplosivesavic
66、iousdogTrespassandnuisancelAtrespassinterfereswiththerighttoexclusivepossessionofland.lAnuisanceinterfereswiththeuseandenjoymentoftheland.Private NuisanceIfalandownerdropsatreeacrossherneighborsboundarylineshehascommittedatrespass.Ifherdogbarksallnightkeepingtheneighborawake,shemaybeliablefornuisanc
67、e.Remedieslmonetarydamageslinjunctionanequitableremedylabatementaself-helpremedyPublic NuisanceDefinitionlconductthatunreasonablyinterfereswiththepublicsrighttopropertyCategorieslinterferencewithpublichealthkeepingdiseasedanimalsoramalarialpondlinterferencewithpublicsafetyshootingfireworksinthestree
68、tsstoringexplosivesPublic NuisancelinterferencewithpublicmoralshousesofprostitutiongaminghouseslinterferencewithpublicconvenienceobstructingahighwayorcreatingaconditiontomaketravelunsafeorhighlydisagreeableRemedylNocivilremedyexistsforaprivatecitizenharmedbyapublicnuisance.Public NuisancelAcriminalprosecutionistheexclusiveremedy.lHowever,iftheindividualsuffersharmthatisdifferentfromthatsufferedbythegeneralpublic,theindividualmaymaintainatortactionfordamages.MixednuisancelSomenuisancescanbebothpublicandprivateincertaincircumstances.pollutionofariver
