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1、 2021/3/111 从属结构l按照层次分析法，英语的语法结构通常是由紧邻的下一层次的结构组成。如果一个语法结构含有同一层次甚至高一层次的结构为其直接成分，这种现象就叫做“从属”。l如：the man with a gun in his hand;lThe man who was holding a gun in his handl从属于其他语法结构的结构叫做“从属结构”2021/3/112l从属结构可以是一个限定分句、非限定分句、或无动词分句，也可以是一个词组，主要是介词词组。l按语法功能分，从属结构可分为：l名词性（主，宾，表，同位语名词性（主，宾，表，同位语, ）从句）从句l关系（定语
2、）从句关系（定语）从句l状语（条件）从句状语（条件）从句2021/3/113l做主语：lIt is quite clear that the crime was done deliberately.lWhat caused the fire is still a mystery.l做宾语：lWe never doubt that he is honest.lNobody can tell when she will arrive.2021/3/114l做主补：The fact is that he didnt notice the car until too late.lThe problem
3、 is not who will go but who will stay. l做同位语：Have you any idea how soon they are coming?lThey had to face the fact that the nearest filling station is 30 miles away.l做介词补足成分：Before I came downstairs I had prepared myself very carefully for what I must say.2021/3/115名词性从句l名词性从句是在一个句子中起名词作用的主谓结构，它可以在主
4、从复合句中作主语、宾语（包括介词宾语）、表语和同位语。l名词性从句的语序使用陈述语序。2021/3/116一.名词性从句要点提示l1. 主语从句、表语从句和宾语从句l1）从属连词that/ whether/ if 只起连接作用，连接从句，不在从句中充当句子成分不在从句中充当句子成分。l2）连接代词what (ever)/which (ever)/who (ever)/whom (ever)既连接从句，又在从句中充当句子成分如充当从句的主、宾、表语等。2021/3/117l3）连接副词when/ where/ how/ why 既连接从句，又在从句中作为副词充当从句的状语。l4）主语从句通常放在
5、句首，但为了保持句子的平衡，可用it作形式主语，而将主语从句由句首移至句末，即采用“It is +名词形容词分词+主语从句”的结构。2021/3/118l5）用that引导的宾语从句如果跟有补足语，须用形式宾语it,而将宾语从句放于宾语补足语之后，即采用“动词+it+宾补+that从句”的结构。l6）表语从句用于系动词belookseem remain之后，对句子主语进行解释和说明。当句子主语为当句子主语为reason时，表语从句时，表语从句应当由应当由that而不是而不是because来引导来引导，但可以说itthisthat is because.2021/3/119l7）介词后面一般不能
6、直接跟that引导的宾语从句，但以下几个介词除外：besides(that) but(that) except(that) in(that).这些介词和后面的that已被当成固定的复合连接词使用。l8）动词doubt用于肯定句式表示“怀疑”时，其后的宾语从句用whether或if引导，意为“是否。”；用于否定或疑问句时，其后的宾语从句用that引导。2021/3/1110l9）连词whether和if都可引导名词性从句表示“是否”，但if的使用受到诸多限制：if不能引导表语不能引导表语从句、（位于句首的）主语从句、介词后的宾语从句、（位于句首的）主语从句、介词后的宾语从句或同位语从句等。从句或
7、同位语从句等。l10）whether后面可以跟or或or not, 其中or not既可跟在whether之后，也可分开放在句末或者省略，而if 后面通常不接or not,如要接，则需与if分开放在后面。l1 1 ）动词不定式前只能用whether,不能用if.2021/3/1111l2.同位语从句l1）在某些抽象名词后面常用连接词that,有时用whether引出同位语从句，具体说明这些名词的内容。l2）能接同位语从句的常用名词包括：answer, belief, certainty, concept, conclusion, decision, discovery, doubt, evid
8、ence, explanation, fact, hope, idea, impression, information, knowledge, law, likelihood, message, news, order, opinion, possibility, principle, probability, problem, promise, proof, question, reply, report, rumor, statement, suggestion, thought, truth等。2021/3/1112l3）在以下一些惯用结构中，也可以用同位语从句on the assum
9、ption thaton condition thatdespite the fact thaton the grounds thaton the pretence thaton the supposition thaton the understanding thatwith the exception that等。l4）为了句子结构平衡，同位语从句有时并不紧跟所修饰的名词，而是被谓语动词等其他的词隔开。2021/3/1113l3.宾语从句l1）部分及物动词和部分介词后面可以接宾语从句。That引导宾语从句时，that在口语中通常可以省略。l2）in butexceptsave少数几个介词后
10、可接少数几个介词后可接that引导的宾语从句且已成为固定搭配。引导的宾语从句且已成为固定搭配。lI be well save that I have a cold.lI agree with you, save that you should be more confident. lIn that ：因为lbut that ：若非lexcept that ：除了之外,只可惜l save that ：只是， 只2021/3/1114l3）在否定转移结构中，主句谓语动词表示“认为，相信，猜测”等，如果后面的宾语从句中含有否定词not,通常要将not转移到主句谓语上。这些词包括believe, co
11、nsider, expect, fancy, guess, imagine, reckon, suppose, think等。2021/3/11152021/3/1116二.关系（定语）从句要点提示l1.引导定语从句的关系代词包括：who, whom, whose, which, that.l2.关系代词which, that ,as 引导的定从的用法l）关系代词在定从中作宾语时可省略。l）先行词是不定代词时（all, any, anything, everything, few, little, much, none, nothing, some, something),关系代词只能用关系代
12、词只能用that。关系代词在定从中作宾语时可省略。2021/3/1117l）先行词是anyone, anybody, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody时，关系代词多用who或whom,不用that.l4)先行词被形容词最高级及first, last, no, only, very等修饰时，关系代词一般用thatl5) 有两个或两个以上的先行词兼指人或物时，关系代词用that.l6)先行词是集体名词时，指整体用which,指集体中的各个成员则用who.2021/3/1118l7)whose引导定从，既可指人（用of whom 替代），也可指物（用of
13、which替代）l）关系代词在定从中作介词宾语时，若该介词被提前，则关系代词不能省略，而且只能用which,whom,不能用that, who2021/3/1119l3.介词+关系代词的结构问题l）这些介词大多是定从中某个词或短语的习惯搭配，但有些固定短语动词不宜将介词分开前置。l）此结构在定语从句中或单独作状语，或连同其他名词一起作状语。l）“介词+whom, which+不定式短语作后置定语”结构，相当于一个定语从句。此时若将介词还原后置，则必须省略whom,which,即成为不定式短语。2021/3/1120l）表示部分所属关系的两种结构为： “名词（代词或数词）+of whom”和 “
14、名词（代词或数词）+of which”l5) 定语从句有时并不紧跟先行词，而是被一个介词短语隔开。2021/3/1121l另详见(定语从句)之专门课件.2021/3/11222021/3/1123l状语从句见下面之三.四.五2021/3/1124三.表示让步、方式、比较的状语从句要点提示l1.引导让步状语从句的连词:lalthough, though, even if, even though, as, that, (who/which/what/where/how) + ever, lno matter +(how/what/which/who/where/whether)l(just as
15、so(正如也), the way lAlthough/Even though air traffic is closely controlled, flying is relatively unsafe.lWhatever(=no matter what )you do, you should do it well.lPlease pronounce the word the way I do. (方式状语)2021/3/1125l2. as引导的让步状语从句必须倒装,如果是动词或现在分词,要提前放在句首,谓语要补加助动词do, does,did或will等.作表语用的单数可数名词放在句首时,
16、该名词前不可加定冠词或不定冠词.lRich as he is, Mr Johnson is by no means a happy man. (让步状)lCoward as he was, Bob ran back as soon as the enemy attached.(原因状)lMuch as I like Paris, I couldnt stay here.lObject as you may, I will go there.lRaining hard as it is, Im going out for a walk.2021/3/1126l3. 在正式文体中,though引导
17、的让步状语从句要倒装,其结构与as引导的让步状语从句类似. 当though引导的让步状语从句不要求倒装时,可用although替换.l as引导的让步状语从句必须倒装,lalthough引导的让步状语从句不能倒装lthough引导的让步状语从句可倒可不倒2021/3/11274. Whoever相当于no matter wholWhenever 相当于no matter when以此类推lHowever (=No matter how) expensive it may be, Ill take it.l无论它有多贵，我也要买下它。 2021/3/1128l5. 连词whetheror或no
18、matter whether.lWhether or notlWhethernot(不管是否)l也可引导让步状语从句,意为 “不管还是”lYoull have to attend the ceremony whether youre free or busy. lWhether you believe it or not, its true.2021/3/1129l6.“whether/though从句主语动词原形”表示让步，语体比较正式lAlthough/Though he was exhausted, (still) he kept on working. lAlthough/Though
19、 he is very old, (yet) he is quite strong. lWhether you believe it or not, its true.2021/3/1130l.as if/ as though引导的状语从句既可以用陈述语气，表示可能符合事实的情况，又可用于虚拟语气，表示与事实不符的情况lShe looks as if she were ten years younger lIt seems as if our team is going to win lIt looks as if a tornado swept thought your room. lIt
20、looks as if theyre looking for something. 2021/3/1131l.在as引出的方式状语从句中，当从句的谓语与主句的谓语动词相同时，从句的谓语动词可用助动词do来代替，以免重复lYou must try to hold the tool as I do. 2021/3/1132l.引导比较状语从句的连词有lAsaslNot as (so)aslMore thanlThe more the morelIm taller than he (is tall ). 2021/3/1133l10.the more .the more句型中，前面的句子表条件，是从
21、句，后面的句子是结果，是主句，前后均用倒装结构lThe higher the temperature (is), the greater the pressure (is ). 2021/3/1134l11. 如果主句（结果）在前，从句（条件）在后，则主句不用倒装，只需倒装从句：l主谓the more+the more+主谓lThe higher the temperature (is), the greater the pressure (is ). lThe pressure is greater, the higher the temperature is.2021/3/1135l12.
22、连词than引导的是比较状语从句，也是一种方式状语从句Than从句的省略有以下几个特点：l省主，留谓，多见于正式文体lThere were more casualties than (it)was reported.lDont eat more than (what) is good for you.lBoth houses were as clean as (they) could be.2021/3/1136l省去整个谓语部分，保留主语lFred doesnt calculate so accurately as Arthur (does).lHe drives faster and mo
23、re dangerously than you (do).l省去主语和部分谓语，保留宾语或修饰语lTom hates him as much as (he hates)me.lI have always lived more in the future than (I have lived ) in the present.lI would rather die than (I would) yield.2021/3/1137l省去宾语lI havent done as much as I should have liked (to do).lThey are as firm as one c
24、ould expect ( them to be).lShe may be as lucky as she hopes (that she will be).l省去表语lThey were as anxious as he was(anxious).2021/3/1138l13.while作“虽然，尽管”时，可以引导让步状语从句，这时while表达并列的转折，即在时间上主句与从句的动作是同一时间发生的While引导的从句通常放在主句之前lWhile I like the colour, I dont like the shape.l我虽然喜欢那颜色，但不喜欢那形状。 2021/3/113920
25、21/3/1140四.表示条件、原因、目的和结果的状语从句要点提示l1. 引导条件状语从句的连词有if, if only, unless, as(so) long as, on condition that, providing (provided /given) that, suppose (supposing) that, in case等lI can tell you the truth on condition that you promise to keep a secret. lSupposing anything should go wrong, what would you d
26、o then? lHe will sign the contract provided we offer more favorable terms. lBut for the rain, we should have a pleasant journey.l要不是下雨,我们的旅行肯定会很愉快。 lBut for your help, we should not have finished in time.要不是你帮忙,我们肯定不能及时完成任务 2021/3/1141l2.引导原因状语从句的连词有： because, as, since, now that, seeing(that), cons
27、idering (that), in that, not that but that等lSince As weve no money, we cant buy it. lSeeing that its raining, wed better stay indoors. 既然外边在下雨，我们最好待在室内。lseeing (that)， now (that)， considering (that)， in that这几个词汇与since引导的原因状语从句意思相近， 都表示“既然”。lConsidering (that) everybody is here, lets begin our discu
28、ssion. 既然大家都到了， 我们就开始讨论吧。l In that he is ill, he feels unable to do it. 因为有病， 他觉得做不了那件事。 2021/3/1142l3.引导目的状语从句的连词有：that, so that, in order that, lest, in case等lI turned down the radio lest it should interfere with his lessons. l我把收音机音量调低以免以免妨碍他做功课。l Don t play by the river in case you fall in and d
29、rown ! 不要在河边玩耍，以免你掉到河里淹死。 2021/3/1143l4.在that，so that, in order that引导的目的状语从句中常有情态动词can (could), may (might), will (would), shall (should)等lSay it louder (so) that everyone can hear you.lI am telling you that lest you should make a mistake.lI got up early so that I could catch the first bus. lWell s
30、it nearer the front so we can hear better. lso much so that 该结构用于形容词或副词之后，表示到如此程度以致于。如： lHe was very weak, so much so that he could not walk. 2021/3/1144l5.lest有否定的意义，意为“以免以防”Lest引导的从句多用助动词should, would, might等虚拟形式In case引导的从句则较少用虚拟形式lWe talked in a low voice lest we should wake the baby up. l我们小声说话
31、以免吵醒婴儿。 lTake good care of yourself lest you catch cold. 好好照顾你自己，以免受凉。 2021/3/1145l6.引导结果状语从句的连词有：that, so(such)that和so(that),with the result that等其中so that引导的结果状语从句前常用逗号与主句隔开，而so that引导的目的状语从句与主句之前则不用逗号隔开目的状语从句可置于句首，而结果状语从句则不能放在句首2021/3/11462021/3/1147五.用于表示时间状语从句的连词及副词要点提示l.when指一个时间段或持续的动作，lWhile
32、只能表示持续的动作或状态，不能表一段时间或短暂的动作As（当的时候）可与when或while互换When作正在此时解时，when从句相当于连词and引导的并列分句2021/3/1148l.（ever）since（自从）引导的从句一般要用非延续性的动词，主句用完成时态如果从句用延续性动词或状态动词，它表示的就是动作或状态的结束，till, until引导的从句,till不用句首，用于肯定句时，主句用延续性动词，若用于否定句，主句可用非延续性动词2021/3/1149l.在no soonerthan, hardlywhen,scarcelywhen从句中，主句用过去完成时如果把no sooner,
33、 hardly, scarcely放于句首，主句要倒装，即把had放在主语之前2021/3/1150l.as soon as, the moment, the instant, the second, the minute, immediately, instantly, directly（一就）等也可以引导时间状语从句2021/3/1151l. every time(每次), any time(任何时候), next time(下一次), the first time(第一次). The last time(最后一次), the day(在那一天), the week, the month,
34、 the year, the morning/afternoon/evening/night (在那天早上)2021/3/1152l.关系副词when(先行词是表时间的名词，在从句中作时间状语，在语义上相当于介词which)，where(先行词是表地点的名词，在从句中作地点状语，在语义上相当于介词which)，why(先行词是表示理由的名词多为reason一词，在从句中作原因状语，在语义上相当于for which)2021/3/1153l. 如果when引导的时间状语从句用一般过去时，其主句用的是过去进行时或be about to结构，这时主句表示从句动作发生的背景（正在或正要做某事），whe
35、n意为正在这时候，等于and at this time.2021/3/1154l.before引导的时间状语从句的两个用法：l1)表示在之前，趁着还没有，还没有来得及的意思从句中的谓语动词有时用情态动词can/couldl2) it is/ was/ will be(time) before(过一段时间才会)的句型不要和it is/has been(time) since（自以来已有时间了）句型混淆2021/3/1155l.一些副词如instantly, immediately,directly, presently等也可以引导时间状语从句2021/3/1156l.句型is to B what
36、 C is to D中的连接词what 可以用来表示比较两种事物相同或相似的关系，相当于as(好比)整句意为“之于就像C之于D 一样.”lAs water is to fish, so air is to man. lWater is to fish what air is to man.lNine is to three what three is to one. 2021/3/1157l. 句型 “not+比较级+than” 与句型 “no+比较级+than” lnot better than没有好.l“no+比较级+than” 意为 “和一样不”,含义为 “两者都不”2021/3/115
37、82021/3/1159状语从句的简化状语从句的省略 简记为:省略主语(或it)和系动词l状语从句同时具备下列两个条件:主句和从句的主语一致，或从句主语为it；从句主要动词是be的某种形式。从句中的主语和be动词常可省略。例如： lWhen ( the museum is ) completed , the museum will be open to the public next year . lHell go to the seaside for his holiday if (it is ) possible. l另外，比较状语从句经常省略。例如： lIm taller than he
38、 (is tall ). lThe higher the temperature (is), the greater the pressure (is ). l2021/3/1160l就状语从句而言,有时为了使语言言简意赅,常常将状语从句进行简化。状语从句的简化现象在口语中较为普遍, 状语从句的简化现象常存在于以下五种状语从句中:由if, unless等引导的条件状语从句;由although, though, even if / though等引导的让步状语从句;由when, while, as, before, after, until / till等引导的时间状语从句;由as, as if
39、等引导的方式状语从句;由as, than等引导的比较状语从句。下面针对这五种情形作一归纳。 l2021/3/1161l(1)当状语从句的主语是it,且谓语动词是be时,it和be要完全简化掉。例如: lIf (it is) possible, he will help you out of the difficulty.如果可能的话,他会帮你摆脱困境。 lYou must attend the meeting unless (it is) inconvenient to you.除非情况对你来说不方便,否则你必须出席这次会议。 l2021/3/1162l(2)当状语从句的主语和主句的主语一致时
40、,从句可以将主语和be动词简化掉。常用于以下几种情形: la.连词连词+形容词形容词lAs (he was) young, he learned how to ride a bike.他小时候就学会了骑自行车。 lWhenever (she is) free, she often goes shopping.她有空就去逛商店。 lWork hard when (you are) young, or youll regret.少壮不努力,老大徒伤悲。l 2021/3/1163lb.连词连词+名词名词lWhile (he was) a young boy, he was always ready
41、to help others.他在孩子时代就乐于助人。 lAlthough (he was) a farmer, now he is a famous director.尽管他曾是个农民,但现在他是位著名的导演了。 2021/3/1164lc.连词连词+现在分词现在分词lAs (she was) walking along the river bank, she was singing a pop song.她沿着河堤边走边唱着流行歌曲。 lAlthough (he is) doing his best in maths these days, he has still got no good
42、 marks.尽管近来他一直在学数学,但他仍然没有取得好成绩。2021/3/1165ld.连词连词+过去分词过去分词lHe wont go there with us unless (he is) invited.除非受到邀请,否则他不会和我们一道去那里。 lThe concert was a great success than (it was) expected.这场音乐会出乎意料地取得了巨大成功。l 2021/3/1166le.连词连词+不定式不定式lHe stood up as if (he were) to say something.当时他站起来好像要说什么。 lHe wouldn
43、t solve the problem even if (he were) to take charge.即使他来负责,他也解决不了这个问题。l 2021/3/1167lf.连词连词+介词短语介词短语lShe looked anxious as though (she was) in trouble.她看上去很焦急,好像遇到了麻烦。 lHe had mastered the English language before (he was) in the USA.他到美国之前就懂英语了。 l注意:当从句主语和主句主语不一致时,从句部分要么用完全形式,要么用独立主格结构来表达。例如: lWhen
44、the meeting was over, all the people went out of the meeting-room.当会议结束时,人们都走出了会议室。(=The meeting over, 2021/3/11682021/3/1169l考题1 When a pencil is partly in a glass of water, it looks as if it _. (1995) lA. breaks B. has broken lC. were broken D. had been broken l答案 C l解析 当说话者认为句子所述的是真实情况或者是极有可能发生、
45、存在的情况时， as if/though引导的方式状语从句需用陈述语气形式。 但表示所叙述的情况与事实相反时as if从句中应使用虚拟语气。注意比较以下两个例句： lHe walks as if he is drunk. lHe walks as if he were drunk. l前一句表示“他已经醉了”， 后一句则表示“他没有醉”。2021/3/1170l考题2 Eliza remembers everything exactly as if it _ yesterday. (2006) lA. was happening B. happens lC. has happened D. h
46、appened l答案 D l解析 as if后的谓语动词应采用一般过去时的形式与状语yesterday搭配， 表示对现在真实情况的虚拟。 2021/3/11712021/3/11722021/3/11732021/3/11742021/3/11752021/3/11762021/3/11772021/3/11782021/3/11792021/3/11802021/3/11812021/3/11822021/3/11832021/3/11842021/3/11852021/3/11862021/3/11872021/3/11882021/3/11892021/3/11902021/3/119
47、12021/3/11922021/3/11932021/3/11942021/3/11952021/3/11962021/3/11972021/3/11982021/3/1199无动词分句l实际上是一种省略结构，所谓无动词是指这种分句结构既没有限定动词词组也没有非限定动词词组作谓语动词。因此，它既不同于限定分句，也不同于非限定分句，无动词分句基本上属于SVC句型，只是动词不表示出来，主语也通常不表示出来。2021/3/11100lSpeechless, Victor Henry nodded and sat on a folding seat.lBig and fat, she went to Mass every Sunday morning.lAn excellent speaker, he was never at a loss for a word.lIt has little taste, unless hot.lYou must eat it when fresh.2021/3/11101
